Problem-Oriented Learning, Problem-Based...
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Problem-oriented learning, problem-based learning, problem-based synthesis, POGIL, PLTL, MEA and project-based learning: what’s best for you? Donald Robert Woods Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/ie401202k • Publication Date (Web): 31 May 2013 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 31, 2013
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Problem-oriented learning, problem-based learning, problem-based synthesis, POGIL, PLTL, MEA and project-based learning: what’s best for you? Donald R. Woods, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
Abstract: The educational contributions of David Himmelblau and Gary Powers are extended by describing a broad spectrum of learning environments that start with a problem. Many of these are characterized in the literature as being simply PBL or claiming to be similar to PBL (for example, POGIL, MEA, project-based synthesis). In this paper, the different outcomes from the learning environment and the degree to which students are empowered with the learning process are criteria used to help identify the subtle differences of the options in 33 learning environments. Elaborations and examples are given for 23 of these. Options for assessment are cited. Brief suggestions are given about how to select an effective learning environment with which you are comfortable.
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David M. Himmelblau and Gary J. Powers both showed great interest in and devotion to helping students learn. David is perhaps best known for his undergraduate text “Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering.” 1 David helped education through his significant contributions to the development of computer aids for chemical engineering work including his books 2-5 on process analysis, process optimization, fault detection, modeling and computer applications. He further aided the advancement of computer methods into the classroom through his leadership in CACHE and received the CACHE Award from the Chemical Engineering Division of the American Society for Engineering Education. Gary is perhaps best known for his book “Process Synthesis” 6 that he coauthored with Dale Rudd and Jeff Sirrola. He brought his work on process risk assessment, 7. 8 safety, process synthesis, process systems engineering to his specialized courses and his unique laboratory experiments that emphasized process safety and environmental risk assessment for chemical engineering graduate and undergraduate students. Gary frequently received the Kun Li Award for Excellence in Education as an outstanding chemical engineering professor. In this paper, we discuss first how we can build on their legacy by exploring learning environments that empower students with some of the learning process, that start with an authentic problem and develop knowledge and process skills. Then some of these options are discussed, with a few examples given of programs that have used these options. Some options for assessment of the knowledge and skills acquired are given. Finally, suggestions are given about how you might select an option that matches your style. 1. Building on their legacy Both David and Gary developed expertise that they shared to help students succeed in their professional careers. Accreditation agencies 9,10 and recent surveys of alumni 11 emphasize that career success is based on expertise in our engineering fundamentals and their application as well as process skills such as lifelong learning, communication, problem solving, critical thinking, process analysis, design and team
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skills. Felder and Brent 12 and Shulman et al. 13 offer suggestions about how this might be achieved. Both David and Gary developed materials related to process design and process improvement. We used to call this our capstone design course; some now refer to this experience as project-based learning. Both David and Gary worked to improve student learning and produced materials to help students learn. Some ways that can be used to improve student learning are as follows. 14, 15,16 The 60 minute teacher talk lecture is the least effective way to help students learn. 17 Chickering and Gamson 18 summarized seven ways to improve learning. These are 1) active, 2) cooperative, 3) time-on-task, 4) prompt feedback, 5) expect student success, 6) cater to different learning styles and 7) have quality interaction between teacher and learner. Other noteworthy options to improve learning include 8). know their names, 9) use ombudspersons, 10) limit teacher talk to 20 min. spurts, 11) motivate and 12) empower students with the learning process, especially the assessment. 16, 19 As Gibbs says whoever owns the assessment, owns the learning.20 To help students becomes deep learners, instead of surface learners, we can encourage peer interaction as they learn and introduce authentic problems at the beginning of every learning experience. Prince and Felder 21 survey inductive methods that are effective in improving learning. Figure 1 reminds us of the usual activities in learning, These activities include 1) Pick problem, 2) Identify the learning issues, 3) Set learning goals/criteria or Learning Objectives, LO, 4) Plan and use a strategy, 5) Pick resources from which to learn, 6) Share information or give lectures, 7) Learn, 8) Solve the problem, 9) Create the assessment, 10) Do the assessment , 11) Embed the new knowledge in previous knowledge by elaboration, 12) Reflect on the process . For conventional lecture-based courses, the teacher does all except the learning and solve the homework problems. We improve learning if we empower students with more of the process. Many different learning environments are available to empower students to take the process skills outlined in Figure 1. Examples include product-based learning, problem-oriented learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, process oriented guided inquiry, peer lead team learning and model-
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eliciting activities. Different learning environments empower students to different degrees and may have different outcomes. We can code each learning option according to the activities, given in Figure 1, that the students are empowered to do. For example empower 3 would mean the students set the learning goals or objectives. In addition, the major outcomes from different learning environments vary. For some, the major outcome is that all students learn the same new knowledge, code as “a”. Another prime outcome could be that all acquire a process skill, such as critical thinking, or design. Individual students might acquire some new knowledge but the prime purpose is to develop the skill, code as “c”. Code “b” is for environments where there is equal emphasis that all learn the same knowledge and that all acquire process skills. Some environments, coded “d,” focus on uncovering and correcting misconceptions and developing deep learning. This coding is helpful because many completely different learning environments are called PBL. ******************* Insert Figure 1 Here is a possible spectrum of 32 learning environments organized according to the degree of student empowerment as a guideline 16, 22-27 (with coding for the major outcomes and for the amount of student empowerment): 1a. Traditional lecture-textbook (provide learning objectives, assign text, lecture, assign homework) [empower 7,8] 2b. Problem1-oriented (lecture with guidelines and strategies for solving problems and applying knowledge), [empower 7, 8] 3a. Problem-assisted (lectures followed by practical experience), [empower 7,8] 4a. Problem-focussed (lectures with study guides), [empower 7, 8] 5a. Problem-assisted actively (lectures with active, peer interaction, cooperative activities), [empower 7,8] 6. Problem-based mixed (students opt for traditional lecture-based or PBL) 7a. Problem-initiated (problems used to interest students in a topic and to highlight material to be covered
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in subsequent lectures, 26 ) [empower 7,8] 8c. Problem-centered (text and script provides series of problems followed with information to solve the problem; solution to problem is known; Guided design) [empower 7,8,10], 9c. Problem-sequence skill focus (series of activities with peers in workshop or scaffolding) [empower 7, 9, 10] 10d. Problem-facilitated deep learning, PLTL (lectures with activities to promote deep learning) [7,8,11,12] 11d. Problem-challenging (preread, test, minilecture, ConcepTest, think about problem, peer discuss, see problem solution) Socratic labs, peer learning, JiTT for deep learning) [empower 7,8,11,12] , 12d. Problem-driven lecture-peer led inquiry (problem posed, lecture, with separate Peer Led Guided Inquiry, PLGI) [empower 7,8,11,12] 13b. Problem-based lecture-learn (problem posed, hand out learning objectives, lecture, small groups solve problem) [empower 7,8, 11,12] 14c. Problem-driven research/inquiry without lectures (problem posed, plan given; students follow plan and solve issue) [empower 7,8,11,12] 15d. Problem-enriched (self study, test in class, small group discuss; teacher facilitates as needed; may lecture, then enriched by problems; MEA, Team-based learning 27,28) [empower 7, 8,10,11,12] 16a. Problem-initiated with students generating learning objectives (problem posed, students identify learning needs and objectives, you lecture, solve problem) [empower 2, 3,7,8] 17a. Problem-based lecture learn (problem posed, students create learning objectives, lecture, then small group solve problem) [empower, 2,3, 7,8, 11, 12] 18b. Problem-based lecture-learn skills (problem posed, students identify learning needs and objectives, you lecture, small group solve problem, scaffold skill development) [empower 2, 3,7,8, 11, 12] 19c. Problem-driven inquiry/research (problem posed, lecture, then inquiry/research) STAR [empower
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2,3, 5, 7,8] 20c. Problem-driven research/inquiry or problem based synthesis or project based learning (problem used to synthesize previously learned knowledge and usually to develop process skill like critical thinking, or design: case method, 26 inquiry, research or project-based learning . Often the solution to the problem is not known.29 ) [empower 2,3,4,5,7,8] 21d. Problem-driven inquiry with small group and skill focus ( POGIL Process oriented guided inquiry learning: problem posed, no lectures, small group facilitated for deep learning).[empower 2,3,5,7,8, 11,12] 22d. Problem-centered discovery (identify past experience/problem, follow Kolb’s learning cycle to learn). [empower 1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,11,12] 23c. Problem driven action learning (student poses problem, small group asks questions and reflects to improve individual’s learning and answer own problem) [empower, 1,2,3, 11, 12] 24a. Problem-based learning given learning objectives. (Pose problem, give objectives, they research, teach, discuss solve, reflect; process skill prerequisite) [empower 4, 5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12] 25a. Problem-based learning knowledge focus (information from one problem generalized to another; solution to problem is known Schmidt et al.’s 30 Type I; process skills prerequisite), 31 [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,.9,10,11,12] 26b. Problem-based knowledge and skills focus scaffold (knowledge in single subject and skills to use knowledge, Schmidt et al.’s 30 type II; process skill prerequisite; scaffold additional process skill development) [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,.9,10,11,12] 27b. Problem-based knowledge and skills focus (knowledge in single subject and skills to use knowledge, Schmidt et al.’s 30 type II; process skill prerequisite; tutor in group for clinical skill development) 31 [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,.9,10,11,12] 28b. Project-led problem-based learning. PL-PBL Open-ended trigger from client posed to students, they create proposal, obtain approval for work breakdown schedule, goals, budget. Then PBL phase where
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students identify what they need to know, learn and teach each other, then return to the project and complete work schedule. Client assesses. [empower: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11] 32, 33 29b2. Problem-based interdisciplinary knowledge in integrated subjects and skills focus. 34, 35, 36 (students make the connections of interrelationships among subjects) [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12] 30b. Problem-based learning transdisciplinary with knowledge, skills and attitudes. 34, 35, 36 (boundaries between subjects exist but are somewhat arbitrary; encourage deep learning independent of subject “discipline;” critically think about knowledge, themselves and peers). 36 [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12] 31b. Problem-based learning for critical contestability. 34. 35, 36 (Explore the underlying structures and belief systems of different disciplines that are integrated so that students critically interpret and develop their own perspectives about the integrated knowledge and skills) 36 [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12] 32c. Task-based (problems solved in real time in a clinical setting). 37, 38 [empower 5,6,7,8,9,10, 11] 33. Personal empowerment: reading-reflecting; learning portfolio [empower 1,2,3,5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12] In-class methods that try to develop attitudes and skills needed in their profession, teach design and improve deep learning, are those from 6 to 28 with each having a slightly different desired outcome, and empowering students to varying degrees. Yet, all these have a common features: they start with a problem, they all empower students with parts if not all of the learning process, most include extensive peer interaction, they all have students actively engaged. The options considered in this paper empower students with most, if not all, of the learning activities.
Posing an authentic problem can then be used a) to prompt students to identify what they know and don't know and learn the missing information and solve the problem and/or b) provide an environment and context for learning such example skills as clinical skills (for nurses, OT-PT, doctors); trouble shooting, design, process improvement skills (for engineers), and detective, procedural skills (for police and law
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enforcement) and/or provides a project to be completed where most of the required knowledge is known. On Figure 2, learning knew knowledge is illustrated on the left hand side; acquiring procedural or process skills is illustrated on the right hand side. The connecting lines are numbered so that these can be used to illustrate an approach taken, for example, if small groups identify the learning objectives (code 1), if the small group individuals learn and teach the material (code 11), if the small group has a tutor helping the group critique and solve the problem (code 47) and the result is a problem solved (code 65). This approach would be described as 1, 11, 47, 65. ********************* Insert Figure 2 ************************ In Section 3 we consider some of the options illustrated on Figure 2 (complete with coding). The assessment options are described in Section 4 and suggestions for show best to select an option are given in Section 5.
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Definitions of terms for Figure 2. LO = learning objectives, CT critical thinking, PS problem solving, SA self assessment, SDL self directed learning, SG small group, MC multiple choice, MEQ modified essay question, OSCE Objective structured clinical examination (practical MEQ) series of 3 timed stations. Triple Jump (identify issues, SDL, test); Tripse (triple jump with data); P4 Portable patient problem pack; PBL 4; tabular list statement or hypothesis/ facts/ learning objectives/ actions ____________________________________________________________
3. Some Options This review focuses on the subtle differences between options called “PBL” or related, in the minds of some authors, to PBL. Such options pose the problem first and empower students with elements of the learning process beyond stages 7 and 8: learning and solving the assigned problems. Option 6, includes problem-based learning as an option. In option 7 the problem is posed first. The learning environment options that empower the students and pose the problem first are options #6 to #28 with ever increasing empowerment of the students. Consider each in turn. 3.1 Option 6. Problem-based mixed (students opt for traditional lecture-based or PBL), This is sometimes called hybrid; if they choose PBL then they are empowered with much of the learning process. On Figure 2, the code is either 3, 10 for the traditional lecture-based program or codes 1, or 2, followed by 11 for the problem-based option. 3.2 Option 7a. Problem-initiated (problems used to interest the student in a topic and highlight material to be covered in subsequent lectures 26 ) [empower 7,8], Variations You create and pose an authentic problem, give learning objectives, lecture, small groups of 4 to 6 synthesize the new knowledge and solve the problem. All are responsible for learning all knowledge. Facilitator with each group or floating facilitator or tutorless groups. 21 On Figure 2, the codes are 3 and 10. 3.3. Option 8c. Problem-centered (text and script provides a series of problems followed by information to solve the problem; the solution to problem is known; Guided design) [empower 7,8,10], Script ; Guided Design Guided Design follows the problem with a script that actively engages the students ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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and guides them through the knowledge acquisition and or skill acquisition. 39- 41 The focus is on process skill acquisition. On Figure 2, the probable codes are 5, 30, 72 and 8, 24. Script: DA- E. The Devil’s Advocate-Engineer dialogue prompts the student to respond to the comments or questions from the DA. After students have responded, students reveal and compare their response with the written script for the Engineer. Examples are given in Dale Rudd and Chuck Watson’s book “Strategy for Process Design.,” 42 and elsewhere. 43 Script: Individualized instruction. Examples have been developed in Pharmacy 44 at the University of Alberta to develop both knowledge and skill. 44
This is described in option 26b. On Figure 2, the codes are 3,
12. 3.4. Option 9c. Problem-sequence skill focus (series of activities with peers in workshops or scaffolding) [empower 7, 9, 10], Workshops to develop process skills. Empowering students with the learning with stagewise training. You distribute learning objectives, create a series of activities that increase in complexity. After each activity, students reflect and receive rapid feedback from peers about the degree to which their performance matched the target behaviours. The cycle of activity, reflect feedback continues until the students have achieved the learning objectives. For process or procedural skill development, usually the professor provides the learning objectives (either intuitively or explicitly). On Figure 2, the codes probably are 7, 9, 20. Scaffold to develop process skills. Empowering students with the learning with stagewise training. You distribute learning objectives, create a series of activities that increase in complexity. You have temporary and adjusted roles starting with introduction and rationalization of the task, then modeling how you solve the task , then guiding them (via resources, scripts, questions, templates, storyboards) as they tackle and successfully complete the task, coaching as they tackle more complex tasks, supporting and finally fading because your assistance is no longer needed while they solve more complex tasks successfully. Misunderstanding is a valid , necessary and accepted step along the way. Alternative views are openly discussed and accepted without feeling devalued or unaccepted. On Figure 2, the codes are 7, 9, 19 or 8, 23 depending on the skill. For process skills, target skills and learning objectives are available for most: such as communication, critical thinking, problem solving, self assessment, time and stress management, learning, lifelong learning, and group ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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and team skills. 11, 45-47 In addition, the procedural strategies for applying these have been described 16, 48,49
For professional skills, examples of design, 49 process improvement and trouble shooting 50, 51 are
published. Most strategies are applied in cycles. 49, 52 Creating the problems Because the focus is on process skill development, the context for the problems is usually generic or independent of subject content; for example, puzzles and common knowledge. The sequence starts with easy and simple and moves to more complex following Bandura’s general principles of developing self confidence. 53 A major activity is creating the feedback and reflection forms to be used by the students. Examples are available. 45 Scaffolding and prompts This applies more to scaffolding, than to workshops. Example prompts about how to give formative assessment and provide written scripts. 16 How it works Extensive diad or small group interaction. Usually two hour time with flat floor, tables and moveable chairs. The usual pattern is Define, Rationalize, Pretest, learning Objectives, Route ahead, Activity with feedback, Reflections, Activity with feedback, Description of target behaviours, Activity with feedback, Reflections, Activity with feedback, Continue until the participants feel they can achieve the objectives, Objectives, Post Test, Discovery. Students write self assessment journal summarizing workshop activities and the development of the skill, assessment of how they bridged the application of the skill to their subject knowledge courses and how they extended the application of the skill into everyday life. Proof, rationale improved learning. 45, 46, 54 3.5. Option 10d. Problem-facilitated deep learning, PLTL (lectures with additional activities to promote deep learning) [empower 7,8,11,12] Two to three lectures/week plus Peer-led Team learning, PLTL, 55, 56 tutorial to promote deep learning. In the tutorial, pose problems to build concepts and improve problem solving skills. Workshops, in traditional tutorial time, supplement but do not replace lectures; class size limited only ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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by the availability of peer-tutors and separate rooms for weekly meetings. Train the student peer- tutors. Groups 6 to 8. Instructor assigns students to groups and membership is for the semester. Students and peer-tutors learn together to find, evaluate and build confidence in the answers and apply concepts introduced in the reading material and lectures. Activities are designed to be completed in class time. Students must prepare pre-session from readings, lectures and studying. The peer-tutor facilitates discussion in a 1-2 h session. No answer or prompts are given to the peer- tutors. Weekly, faculty meet with peer-tutors. This is used in chemistry, biology, physics, math, computer science and engineering. Assess: individual tests. They are usually not assessed on team work. 56 Creating the problems Carefully constructed problems to improve conceptual understanding and problem solving skills. Problems are structured for group work and similar to the most challenging exam problems. To be completed within the time available for a tutorial. 29 Scaffolding and prompts None suggested How it works Students prepare before the tutorial including attending lectures. Peer-tutors facilitate group discussion and problem solving, help identify and correct misconceptions. 1. Workshop closely integrated with lectures, 2. You interact with peer tutors and workshops, 3. Peers are trained, 4. Problems carefully designed to challenge and for groups, 5. Correct facilities for cooperative groups. Sessions held outside normal class time; each group with a separate room. 6. Institutional support. 56 On Figure 2, the codes are 3, 13. Proof and rationale Importance of the social aspects to learning. active learning, motivation and performance, grades improve, peers ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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improve their own learning, deep learning, self confidence; 56 and retention, perseverance, attitudes, peers benefit. 56, 57 3.6. Option 11d. Problem-challenging (preread, minlecture, think about problem, discuss, see problem solution: Socratic labs, peer instruction, Just in Time Teaching, JiTT, for deep learning) [empower 7,8,11,12]. Just in Time Teaching, JiTT. You assign readings or web activities to be completed before class. In class they answer questions, you discover what they don’t understand or have misinterpreted and you give immediate minilecture. Can provide enrichment via authentic problems, on-line puzzles. Web activities can include lab data that require qualitative analysis. Individuals or small groups. 21 On Figure 2, the codes are usually 3, 13 with minilectures (10) as needed. Variations ESTGA3, Portugal engineering 58 Supportive active JiTT lecture course, coop SG. Coordinated with concurrent projects with SG which the tutor facilitates. Sr level, more complex project, fewer support lecture courses. On Figure 2, the pattern is 10, 42 and for skills 5, 16, 71. Peer Instruction. Before class, students preread and answer questions. Class starts with you giving a short minilecture. Then you pose a ConcepTest. Individuals respond to the test, usually via clickers. Each connects with 1 to 2 classmates, and they try to convince each other that their answer is right. Then individuals are polled via clickers. You explain the correct answer and elaborate. The cycle is repeated about 4 topics an hour with the focus on four key concepts that are difficult or that students have as misconceptions. Creating the ConcepTest Identify the difficult concepts or misconceptions held by students. Pose multiple choice questions with about four options plus “none of the above.” 59 ConcepTests in physics, 60 chemistry,61 calculus 62 and astronomy63 are available. Other options include open ended questions, drawing a diagram, solving a problem, creating a graph or doing a demonstration. Additional workshops to improve problem solving: you display/discuss how you solve problems and circulate when student groups work on problems. How it works ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Students preread. If the text is not strong on the topic, you provide enrichment materials. Students respond electronically to a pretest to be answered the night before class: two concept tests and what was difficult or confusing in prereading. You scan these to identify concepts to be addressed in minilectures. Start class with 7 to 10 min of minilecture, then spend 5 to 8 min on the ConcepTest peer activity. In this activity the question is posed (1 min); individuals think about it and record/report individual answers (2 min); neighbours discuss answers (2 to 4 min); individuals record/report revised answers; you display results and explain the correct answer. For “neighbours discuss” students are encouraged to “find someone who disagrees with you.” Initially, the number of correct answers, for a good ConcepTest, is 35 to 70%. After discussion, the goal is for 90% correct answers. If you posed an open-ended question, or posed a task like drawing a diagram, solving a problem, or creating a graph then you circulate to select several student examples. Post about three or four and ask each to identify which most closely corresponds to theirs. Then small group peer discussion. Assessment, criteria-based; reading assignment 10%; homework 20% exams, laboratories and participation 70%. 59, 60 On Figure 2, the codes are 3, 13 with minilecture (10) as needed and 47, 65. Variations Some use prereading; some do not. For reporting of answers, the options used include clickers, show of hands, flashcards or scanning forms. 51 Proof, rationale improvement in mastery, problem solving, retention and deep learning. 59 Socratic Dialogue Inducing labs, SDI. You provide script and hints to guide students through laboratory activities. Hands-on and minds-on experiments that produce conflict with common sense understanding with script for students to answer that probes Socratic questions. Requires multiple representations (verbal, written, pictorial, diagrammatic, graphical, and mathematical) of physical systems; repeated problem scenarios in many different contexts. Extensive peer discussion. 64, 65 Creating the problems Challenging problem, such as How much food needed by astronaut/day for a 2 week space mission in order to satisfy metabolic needs and not gain or lose weight?” Alternatively, have experiments that pose a connundrum and challenge misconceptions. 64, 65 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Scaffolding and prompts Provide script. How it works 1) hands on experiments with concrete physical systems with prompt feedback from peers/instructor, 2) mindson experiments with concrete physical systems with prompt feedback from peers/instructor, 3) repeated engagement with increasingly sophisticated levels with successive and different contexts of subject matter and use up to 5 cycles. 64, 65 On Figure 2, the codes could be 3, 12, 13 with minilecture (10) as needed. Variations Pose problem, students in 1.5 h prelab decide what data are needed from lab via guided Socratic type discussion with teacher (created handout “similar to teacher’s), 2 h lab, including occasional reflection. Proof, rationale, deep learn, marks improve on Concept tests. 64-66 3.7. Option 12d. Problem-driven lecture peer-led inquiry (problem posed, lecture, with separate Peer-Led Guided Inquiry, PLGI) [empower 7,8, 11, 12] PLGI 67 is combination of POGIL (option 21d) and PLTL (option 10d). It uses the POGIL approach with peers and replaces one of three lectures with this activity. Two, 1h lec/week plus one 2 h PLGI with undergraduate peers leading/facilitating groups of 10 with teacher-led guided inquiry of concept review. 21 Proof, rationale: deep learning. 21, 67 On Figure 2, the codes are 7, 9, 19, 53, 64. 3.8. Option 13b. Problem-based lecture-learn (problem posed, hand out learning objectives, lecture, small group solve problem; [empower 7,8, 11,12]. This is a lecture version of problem-based learning. On Figure 2, for knowledge acquisition the pattern is probably10, 41, 60; for skills, 8, 29, 53, 64. Variations Delaware, Nursing. 68, 69 Three concurrent lecture courses with 15% PBL to bridge/synthesize information. 4 h/wk lectures; 2 h/wk PBL, SG 5, tutor circulates. On Figure 2, the pattern for knowledge is 10, 43, 64 and for skills 8, 29, 53, 64.
3.9. Option 14c Problem-driven research/inquiry without lectures (problem posed, plan given; students follow plan and solve issue) [empower 7,8, 11, 12] research/inquiry but you give the learning objectives and the ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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plan; focus on skill development. This variation on inquiry described in Option 20c is restricted because you give the plan to the students. On Figure 2, the codes are 3, 5, 18, 69. 3.10. Option 15d. Problem-enriched (self study, tested in class, small group discuss; you facilitate as needed; may lecture, then enriched by problems; MEA, 71 Team-based learning28) [empower 6,7, 8,10,11,12] Here are details about two sample options, MEA and Team-building learning. MEA Model-eliciting activities. Enrichment for lectures [empower: 7,8,10,11,12] You create authentic open-ended, client-driven problems that match your learning objectives. The tasks associated with answering the question are designed so that the student’s problem solving process is evident. Typically two 50 min lectures give the knowledge, with enrichment from MEAs in 100 min laboratory time with 2 to 3 MEAs problems /semester. Students work in groups of 3 to 4 to create models to satisfy the “client’s” problem and to allow the client to extend the use of the student’s model to other similar situations. You scaffold the approach through written prompts and multiple forms of formative feedback and iteration to help students develop strategies and methods to solve such problems. Students justify and explain suggestions to peers; predict consequences, monitor and assess progress, integrate and communicate results. This peer discussion helps develop thinking and reasoning skills, identify conceptual strengths and weaknesses, overcome misconceptions and promotes deep learning. Each group’s written report of their first model includes justification of the solution, an explanation of its use and a description of ideas they considered but rejected. Your feedback guides them to cycle through the process to create an improved model.
Each group will cycle at least 3 times
through the process with some teams cycling up to 14 times. There is usually no right answer. Creating the problems You identify the top 8 to 12 concepts that are the heart of your course and especially the major misconceptions. 70
Once the topic and misconceptions have been identified, then the problem is crafted so that 1) it
represents an authentic real life situation that is relevant to the students: identifies the “client’s” purpose such that the students read the background knowledge, 2) the model construction activity must require develop, revise, refine, extend a mathematical model; 3) the criteria are explicit so students self assess if their solution meets project criteria, 4) documentation of student’s thinking is required by the students, 5) the product should be user friendly and capable of use on other projects, 6) the process models the thinking processes students will ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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use in their career. 70 Often you achieve this by writing the case as a client who requests the students to produce a product for a specific purpose and explain the process that should be used to answer similar problems in the future. 72 Some example problems are, in mathematics and statistics, 70 Sears advertisement, selecting the person as next batter in baseball, how to carry $ 1million; 70 in engineering, 73 nano-roughness of joint replacements in the body, the crystal size of aluminum in baseball bats and Just in Time Manufacturing, 74 Scaffolding and prompts. To guide the students in displaying their thought processes, here are some prompts that you could provide in writing or in brief discussion with a group. Prompts: critical thinking: why does that make sense? Are there other ways to interpret the data? what does this predict? Is that what we expect? What is the goal? What criteria does this satisfy? Can you elaborate on this and get an improved prediction? What have you learned from this cycle? What mathematical principles were used or what assumptions did you make? How can you extend this? How might you think differently about ... the goals?.. about the givens? ... about the solution? What patterns, relationship or trends seem to be important in this problem? Prompt: what mathematical objects did you use? Ratios? Trends? Prompt: What relationships or comparisons among objects might be considered here? Prompt: What operations or interactions among objects were most significant for you? Prompt: What methods of representing the problem (symbols, graphs, charts) were most appropriate for you in this problem? Why? Prompt: for the model that has been developed, what was the most interesting aha moment? What were the critical assumptions and when were they made? What other situations can be modeled using this model? Prompt: what has been learned from this modeling? How might we improve your approach to modeling next time? Prompt: how might this model be improved (a prompt to initiate another cycle)? Prompt: what descriptors, explanations, predictions, procedures did you use that others can use beyond this situation? How it works An example use in first year engineering course is as follows. . Series of four, six-week team projects/semester that are supported by a series of homework assignments. In-class activities: four-part sequence: 74 a) individual prereading of background followed by prompts to encourage reflection and check understanding b) MEA creation of model; individual activity, including prompts to connect and elaborate, then group work. ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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The individual part is critical because if the whole team was given the problem, individuals work at different speeds and not all would feel they can understand and contribute. Team writes a memo describing its procedure/answer and lists additional information needed to improve the procedure. Peer and teacher feedback are given. Based on this, students are required to do two more iterations or cycles on their model. 74 c) explore the model. Given as homework to extend the solution to a computer program. Uses prompts to extend the thinking. Prompt: of the four graphs that are given, which would you characterize as the most rough? Why? Prompt: what assumptions did you make about the graphs? Prompt: Given the average maximum profile model, how is this similar or different from the model your group proposed? Prompt: compare the roughness obtained by your team’s procedure with the results from the average maximum profile model. d) make the model adaptable to other situations. Convert model into MATLAB. 74
On Figure 2, a possible
path is 5, 30, 72 or 7, 9, 19, 31, 23. Proof and rationale opens doors for women and minorities into engineering, satisfies ABET criteria, 74 deep learning,70 problem solving,70 team skills, multitasking ability, ability to adapt to different media for solving problems (spreadsheets, graphs, calculators). 74 Team based Learning. Students prestudy course material as individuals, in class complete multiple choice test (called the Readiness Assurance Test, or Readiness Assessment Test, RAT); then as a group discuss answers to test and perhaps report answers via clickers. You give a clarifying lecture based on the needs. Then application activities where you pose a significant problem to be solved that applies the knowledge. Groups solve simple problem; then solve a more difficult problem. Close this section of the course with self peer assessment of knowledge and team effectiveness. Varies slightly from application to application. The six steps are: 1) individual pre-class study, 2) individual RAT, 3) team test, 4) written appeals from teams if they think their answer is better and justifiable, 5) You give feedback and mini lecture, 6) 1 to 4 h of class time applications, individuals then teams solve simple problem; then repeat with complex problems, 7) assessment RAT, self and peer team. Proof, rationale: motivation, critical thinking, deep learning, team and interpersonal skills. 28, 29 On Figure 2, the codes might be 4, 13, 10, 26 and 5,17. 3.11. Option 16a. Problem-initiated with students generating learning objectives (problem posed, students ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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identify learning needs and objectives, you lecture, solve problem) [empower 2,3,7,8]. A variation on lecturing approach is that the students assume more ownership, and they discuss what they know already, what they need to know to solve the problem and they create the learning objectives. Then you lecture related to the learning objectives. 75 After the lecture you could use small groups to solve the problem. On Figure 2, the codes might be 1, 10, 42. 3.12. Option 17a. Problem-based lecture learn (problem posed, students create learning objectives, lecture, then small group solve problem) [empower, 2,3, 7,8,11,2] This is an extension of Option 13b. In option 13b, you hand out the learning objectives. In this options, the students in small groups create the learning objectives and then you lecture to satisfy those objectives. On Figure 2, the route might be 1, 10, 43. 3.13. Option 18b. Problem-based lecture-learn skills (problem posed, students identify learning needs and objectives, you lecture, small group solve problem, scaffold skill development) [empower 2, 3,7,8, 11, 12]. Variations Cornell veterinary medicine. 76 SG 6-7/tutor; concurrent PBL practical, social, ethical aspects of profession & 2 structured labs/wk and 2 to 3 lectures/wk. Learn knowledge & professional skills. SG Goals SDL in afternoons, lectures. Case may run 8 or more successive weeks. three, 2h SG/week. Initial case is 8 to 15 pages with handled 1 page/week. Assess via exams ( 2 to 3 cases at the end of each foundation semester with 2 to 3 days of testing). Tutor guide; PBL orientation to new students. On Figure 2 this might be shown as 1, 10, 26; 1,11, 47, 54, 65 and skills on the right hand side 8,21, 55, 54 and 65. Newcastle Architecture. 77, 78 Problem-based lecture-learn with individual learning. SG explore learning issues in case. Four year starting with Yr 1, learning knowledge, then SG PBL then evolves to individual 1-on-1 design with tutor. lecture, tutor group 10, Lecture & problem solve, SG ; SDL; assessment; 1 problem/week. Concurrent 4 PBL-L and 1 project. On Figure 2 this might be shown as 1,10, 43 and 5, 18, 69. 3.14. Option 19c. Problem-driven inquiry/research (problem posed, lecture, then inquiry/research) STAR [empower 2,3, 5, 7,8] STAR legacy, lecture: 1) you pose challenge; 2) thoughts: students formulate initial thoughts of what they know already and brainstorm ideas about the challenge; 3) perspectives and resources, you lecture with no direct answers; give resources; 4) assessment: students engage and then answer challenge or identify what they still need to know and cycle back to 3; 5) wrap up: students give answer; exam testing ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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comprehension. You may describe solution. 21, 79
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On Figure 2, the codes could be 13, 10, 11, 62 and 7, 9, 19,
31, 23. 3.15. Option 20c. Problem-driven research/inquiry or problem based synthesis or project based learning (problem used to synthesize previously learned knowledge and usually to develop process skill like critical thinking, team skills, communication, problem solving, research skills or design: case method, [26] inquiry, research or project-based learning . Often the solution to the problem is not known. [29] ) [empower 2,3,5,7,8 and sometimes 1] Consider, in turn, Case based, Inquiry, research and project-based. Case-based is usually to synthesize previous knowledge, clarify misconceptions and develop critical thinking, self confidence, and skills for discussion/debate. Peer interaction. You create a climate for open discussion and wholesome peer interaction. 16 No lectures. You create the case, establish and maintain the trustful environment and facilitate probing of knowledge and skill development. Wide variety of roles used: Socratic, facilitative, scaffolding, or monitoring. [empower 2,3,5,7, 8] Creating the problems Cases are often about 2 to 30 pages long. They provide background history of a real, complex situation that provokes discussion and resolution. This needs to be a teaching story, instead of historical description of what was done. Guidelines suggest a 6-step process: 1. Purpose: what concepts? and how? 2. Organize: purpose, key questions and key disciplines. 3. Structure: a) what you expect the student to do (analyze decisions made? Be decision maker?, b) complexity (one concept or multidimensional?), c) format (usually 3 to 8), include irrelevant, misleading data? Wellorganized? Or semi-organized? 4. Context: which society dimensions (political, environmental, ethical, technical, economical)? and business dimensions (customers, suppliers, competitors)? 5. Data: how and how much to present? Internet or media sources? Usually you prepare 70% of the case with students obtaining 30% through research. 6. Get student feedback on preliminary version and revise. 80 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Suggestions are given by Hansen, 81
Maufefette-Leeaners et al. 82 with example cases from Kardos, 83 and the
Harvard Business School. 84 Scaffolding and Prompts Prompts to help students understand the content, identify the boundaries and constraints, to see the interrelationships and the administrative structure and to assume personal responsibility for proposed action. Many suggestions and guidelines are available. 74 How it works Students read case ahead of time and gather additional information as needed. You plan how to start. Suggest they follow an example case strategy. 82 You provide prompts 85 and facilitate discussion. Discussion can be facilitated by you, within small groups of 3 to 6 students, small groups create scenario and then you facilitate large group discussion, or identified students facilitate discussion in turn. 86 You plan how to close the session. 16 On Figure 2, the route might be 5, 18, 69 or 7, 9, 19, 31, 23. Variations Many variations include lab-based case (where, in response to a case, the students discuss, design and run an experiment); 21 two teams debate with rest of class observe/feedback; 21 diads debate; 21 jigsaw (different groups become expert on one aspect of the case; reform groups with one expert from each group to resolve the case);21 trial (all prewrite position papers; then trial with two groups for trial attorneys for and against, call three witnesses, cross examine, then all write 2-min. reaction paper); 21 public hearing with board hearing groups present position; 21 sequential disclosure ( [empower 2,3,5,8] problem is posed that requires research and more data. Small groups discuss hypotheses and experiments. Next class you reveal researcher’s hypothesis and experiment. Small groups predict data. You reveal data; small groups draw conclusions. You reveal researcher’s interpretation and conclusions). 21 Proof, rationale: develops problem solving, critical thinking and self confidence, integrates subject knowledge, bridges the gap between academia and practice in industry, active and peer interaction, communication and ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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thinking on your feet. 86 Inquiry [empower , 2,3,5,7,8 with some versions adding 1,4, 9, 10, 11,12] No lectures. A question is posed. The tasks are to determine what needs to be known, identify possible resources, design and conduct investigations; give priority to the evidence to develop and evaluate explanations for the question, evaluate their explanation in the light of alternative explanations, communicate and justify their proposed explanations. 87, 88 Great flexibility: who poses the question; who suggests, monitors and guides the process. The context for the question can be the subject discipline, multidisciplinary, community or global issues. The process used is typically similar to that used in research. The assessment criteria are usually those used to referee research articles: understanding of the previous literature or context, critical thinking, quality of evidence gathered and used; validity of the arguments and the conclusion. When students are empowered with the process, then they should also be willing to acknowledge and ask guidance when needed. More ideas are available. 87- 90 Creating the problems Roy, Krustra and Borin 89, 90 give 10 general guidelines for creating the inquiry question: 1. Students are interested in the topic. 2. The question is open to research. 3. Students don’t know the answer already. 4. The question may have multiple possible answers and not a simple yes or no. Pose “why?” questions instead of “what?” questions. 5. Start with a general question that leads to a clearly-focused question that matches the student’s interests. 6. There is a reasonable possibility that credible information can be found about the question. 7. Avoid or rephrase questions that include a premise. For example: “Why do we only use 3% of our brain?” assumes that we do use only 3% . Instead try “What influences the percentage of our brain that we use?” 8. Define all vague terms in the question so you know exactly what is being asked. For example, modify “most recent.” 9. A new question can be asked once all pertinent information has been gathered. 10. Each student feels that this is the right answer to the question, And not just an answer that the teacher likes. ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Inquiry is about needing to know the answer to a question, or researching a question where the answer has consequences, so there is some pressure to get it right. Anything short of this can be a game, fun, mentally stimulating, but isn't genuine inquiry. Although some pose the question, however, to improve the learning experience empower the students to pose the question. To provide the context and content, you could pose a general topic, 91 such as community and global issues, environmental sustainability, media art, design and technology or you might give them several newspaper articles as prompts. Scaffolding and prompts You could use the following script handouts: 1 Explore (who, what, when, where, why, how); 2. Brainstorm reasons and issues, data needed; 3. Central question (interests you, researchable and possible to answer; combines big picture and local context); 4. Three to four possible answers; 5. Research: where to try to find possible information/evidence for each question; 6. Another possible answer and sources of possible information/ evidence; 7. Summary and conclusions. How it works Hand out leaning objectives related to the development of critical thinking and research skills. You provide the general context. You could model the creation of a “good” inquiry question and model the critical thinking process used to “answer” the question. Then, especially with scaffolding, guide them through the process. During the first four weeks, you scaffold the development of critical thinking and inquiry process skills with short assignments with small group (3 to 5) discussion. Individuals submit inquiry question proposal. Individuals continually write “inquiry notebook” where each reflects and self assesses plans, and activities; documents progress and development of self-directed learning and critical thinking skills. 88 On Figure 2, the codes might be 5, 18, 70 and 5, 31, 23. Variations You pose the question and outline plan of how to solve it. Context: answer known. 19 [empower 5,7,8]. You pose the question and outline plan. Context: answer unknown. Content: interdisciplinary, community, global. 87 You pose the question, students decide how. Context: answer not known. Content: subject, ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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interdisciplinary, community, global. 92 [empower 4,5,7,8]. A client poses the question, students decide how. Context: answer not known. Content: subject, interdisciplinary, community, global. 92 Producing: discovery responsive: 93, 94 Guided:95 closest to consulting. You pose a question, individuals plan and execute how to solve. 21
Students pose question, individuals decide
how. Context: answer not known. Content: subject, interdisciplinary, community, global. 21, 92 Authoring: discovery active:93, 94 Open: closest to “research.” 95 Students own question and the process. Context: answer known. Content: subject, interdisciplinary, community, global. 95 Pursuing: information active. 92- 94 Individual students pose question and explore both pro and con about issue. 21 On Figure 2, the code could be 3, 13, 7, 9, 19, 53, 65. A related option is Bidwell’s "Quescussions." Your pose a trigger such as a poem, topic, theme or single word (such as “Hamlet”). Students, in the following discussion, must pose open-ended questions (What where, how, why) instead of statements. Some questions should be about feelings. Questions do not have to be related to the previous questions. You create and maintain a positive climate for discussion. 16 One guideline is that participants yell "Statement" or make a sound if anyone makes a statement rather than asking a question. No one raises their hand to participate. 90 Another variation is Nelson’s Quest via 3-part projects. Part 1, in-class , 1) You pose a scenario, 2) students list two motivating questions about which each is curious and that would provide important insights re topic, prioritize; 3) briefly explain rationale, 4) write how answers to your questions will improve your understanding of the topic; 5) list essential facts needed to know answer your questions 6) list up to 5 multiple working hypotheses that would answer your top question . Part 1b out of class. Continuation of Part 1 but students reflect and have chance to clarify – but not change- the questions created in class. Hand in within 24 h. Part 2 due 1 week out-of class: answer two primary questions plus substantiating evidence; evidence to support and refute hypotheses; rationale for each evidence; what you will measure/observe; major assumptions in testing hypothesis; validity of assumptions; answer top hypothesis, cite at least 2 primary research papers, rationalize your conclusions. Submit pdf of cited papers. You mark Parts 1b and 2 and return to students. Part 3 In-class ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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discussion of questions posed, hypotheses, answering strategies. Proof rationale: deep learning. 96 proof and rational: deep learning, critical thinking, self directed learning, group skills, self and peer assessment.88 Research students have a project to complete. The project usually has an unknown answer. Students seek and discover new knowledge or confirm past experience and learn critical thinking and a strategy for research. 97, 98 Individuals set goals, identify criteria, plan and gather data, report findings. 99 [empower, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, with some versions adding 1, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12] Creating the problems Critically read the literature and identify a) areas where there are conflicting views, b) questions that have not been asked or addressed, c) a theory or hypothesis to be tested, d) extensions of on-going research, e) possible applications and uses of fundamentals, f) answers to why? g) client poses a problem, h) tests needed for the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments. Scaffolding and prompts You mentor and guide through the research process: Identify a research problem, Critically review the pertinent literature, Specify the purpose of research, Determine the specific research questions or hypotheses: identify the variables and how they will be measured, Collect data: sampling and use of instruments that are valid and reliable, Analyze and interpret the data; test and revise the hypothesis, Report and evaluate research. How it works Identify which phases of the research process the students will address. You mentor the process, whether working with individuals or groups, assigning students to assist graduate students and professionals in your research group. On Figure 2, the route could be 5 or 8, 27, 18, 70. Variations You assign, they identify or a client poses a project. The focus could be on a) finding an answer to the problem, b) proposing an interesting project or on any of the individual steps in the research process. For example, first year students are given the topic “Student’s quality of Life,” designed a survey, gathered data from three others, discussed results and reported. Proof, rationale: integrate research, empowered with learning. 98 Students create ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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their own with an off-site client. Students visit a site, list 10 questions of interest. Each shares one question with group of 5, group selects one for which they create hypotheses and ways to test. Individuals report their ten questions, for one question, the group creates one hypothesis and writes a mini research proposal. 97 Small groups research project identified by the community. 97 Proof, rationale: develop self-authorship, 98 more confident learners, independent thinkers, research process, critical thinking. 97
Project-based synthesis: Students have a project to complete. They work in groups, they know most of the basic fundamentals and are required to synthesize and use that knowledge to solve the project. If some new knowledge is needed for parts of the project, individuals will learn that but not necessarily everyone in the group learns that knowledge. The focus is on the development of professional skills and application of a professional process such as engineering design, medical clinical skills, police investigative and response to danger. Regrettably, those skills are usually not provided explicitly through target behaviours, learning objectives and examples of strategies. You usually monitor and facilitate the skill development. The assessment and focus usually is on the quality of the product. 21 [empower 2, 3, 4,6, 7] Creating the problems Some use their professional experience or contacts for problems, for example University of Pennsylvania 100 and at McMaster we worked with local industries. 101 The Washington University-Monsanto series are available in Chemical Engineering. 102 Scaffolding and Prompts Usually the groups provide progress reports, Gantt or planning charts and day books periodically. You use this as an opportunity to monitor and prompt. How it works Student groups meet with those who pose the project. The team usually divides the project into parts with different students tackling different parts of the overall task. Sometimes individuals need to learn new knowledge to solve their part of the project. You mentor and perhaps scaffold the design process. Students ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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create day books or interim reports. Periodic self and peer assessment is often used throughout the project. The students present oral and written reports to the client. Variations Four variations: a) students decide on the project in a specific subject areas or b) in any area or c) you assign the project or d) an external client poses the project. Product-based “synthesis” Stanford. Tutor monitors. SG or individuals create an answer to project. Assess: prototype, computer keying, day book or script & sketches of ideas as they progress. 103 On Figure 2, the codes could be 5, 8, 27, 18, 69 or 70. McMaster University, Project-based for trouble shooting skill, triads, tutorless, three 2 h sessions with increasing complexity, simulation with expert system responding to question pose from the problem, self assess journal. 104 On Figure 2 is coded as 8, 25. Project-based design/simulation. 1 tutor per SG up to 15. Ttutor guides/monitors, tutor assesses day book, oral and written reports that client assesses. 100 On Figure 2, this is coded as 8, 23 and 5, 18, 69. Proof, rationale: motivation, integrates subject knowledge, bridges the gap between academia and practice in industry, active and peer interaction, communication, design or problem solving skill, group skills. 105 3.16. Option 21d. Problem-driven inquiry with small group and skill focus ( POGIL Process oriented guided inquiry learning: problem posed, no lectures, small group facilitated for deep learning).[empower 2,3,4,7,8, 11,12] POGIL57, 106 replaces lectures with student discussion. Activities designed to be completed in class time. Self managed teams, specially designed materials via guided inquiry follows 3-stage cycle: 1) explore: where explore a model, search for patterns and extract meaning; 2) concept invention or formation (depending on the prompts) 3) application. Students assigned roles to ensure an effective group. Learning cycle is similar to that of Karplus et al. 107 Creating the problems Problems structured by the learning cycle. Examples at POGIL website. 109 Problem sets from instructor’s own notes, website. Scaffolding and prompts ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Prompt questions: test hypotheses; explain patterns. Tutor is facilitator and circulates / scaffolds. How it works Many sessions start with short quiz reviewing material from previous class or homework assigned. One activity lasts one period. Assigned roles for students: manager, recorder, reflector, technician and presenter. All groups discuss the same thing at the same time. If it is not completed, then it is homework. Emphasis on social aspects of learning but POGIL has greater structure via the assigned student roles. Emphasis on reflection especially about the learning process. Assess: participation; clickers for comprehension. Instructor’s Guide at pogil website.109 On Figure 2, this might be shown as 3, 13. Variations Usually < 30 class size with no lectures. Stand alone activity. Classes up to 200, replace one of three lectures each week with a peer-led team learning session using POGIL materials. 100 Proof and rational: improved deep learning, problem solving, deductive reasoning, communication and selfassessment, group skills, retention, attendance, higher average score. 56 3.17. Option 22d. Problem-centered discovery (identify past experience/problem, follow Kolb’s learning cycle to learn). [empower 1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,11,12] Sometimes called experiential-learning. generic term for learning where the student is actively engaged in tasks or the experience. The model followed is Kolb’s 4 stage learning cycle: 110, 111 Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization, Active Experimentation. The problem used is something personally significant or meaningful to the students. 112 Reflective thought and opportunities for students to write or discuss their experiences should be ongoing throughout the process. The whole person is involved, meaning not just their intellect but also their senses, their feelings and their personalities. You need to establish a sense of trust, respect, openness, and concern for the well-being of the students. On Figure 2, this could be coded as 1,11,62. 3.18. Option 23c. Problem driven action learning (student poses problem, SG asks questions and reflects to improve individual’s learning and help individual answer own question; action learning) [empower, 1,2,3,4, 11, 12] Individual poses the problem he/she is wrestling with to a SG of 3 to 8 who ask questions to help the “client” learn and see options and actions to take. Even if others see an apparent answer, they are not to give ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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suggestions of actions to take. The purpose is for the client to do his/her own problem solving. Reflection/journal writing is an integral part. Tutor is a facilitator of reflection and action; goal is to achieve individual goals; learning is personal. 36, 113, 114 Creating the problems The problem is usually work related and with no immediate, clear answer. The problem must be within the control of the problem poser/client and be capable of being solved within the timescale of the 12 to 24 weeks. How it works ½ day. One member of the group, called the client, poses problem with words such as “I’d like to explore... I’m wondering if... I’m uncertain about... I’m confused by...” No interruption or questioning during the presentation. Then questions are asked, one at a time to help the client see the situation from a rich variety of perspectives. The roles of the group are not to provide answers, not to share stories from their experience of what they did. Rather they are to ask questions to help the client learn. Example questions are suggested. 114 When the client has an ahah moment, then the client describes the actions he/she will take over the next 4 to 6 weeks. All of encouraged to reflect on the process used with the client, in particular, reflecting on his/her learning. If time remains, then the process is repeated with another client. When the group reconvenes for midterm review, clients, one at a time, briefly report on actions taken, their learning and list actions for the next 4 to 6 week period. If mistakes were made in the initial assumptions or otherwise, then start the questioning again. The emphasis is on journal progress and lessons learned. Then, a new client will pose a problem and the cycle repeats. Group final review. Reflect on final experiential learning and self awareness. Variations Some group prefer to have a facilitator who maintains the trustful, helpful and learning environment. Other groups find the facilitation can come from within the group. On Figure 2, this might be shown as 5, 18, 69. Proof, rationale: self confidence, learning skills, problem solving, cross-departmental communication, alternative ways of engaging in problems. 112 3.19. Option 24a. Problem-based learning given learning objectives . (Pose problem, give objectives, they research, teach, discuss solve, reflect; process skill prerequisite) [empower 5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. On Figure 2 ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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this is 3, 11, 45, 46 or 47, 63 to 65. 3.20. Option 25a. Problem-based learning knowledge focus (information from one problem generalized to another; solution to problem is known Schmidt et al.’s 30 Type I; process skills prerequisite), [empower 2,3,5,6,7,8,.9,10,11,12]. Problem based learning is small group (4 to 8 students), self-directed, self-assessed, interdependent problem-based learning. You create and pose a professionally-significant or authentic problem, the students decide what they know already, what they need to know, create learning objectives (that are approved by the tutor ), contract with each other, research and prepare teach notes, teach each other and assess the knowledge learned and problem solved. The faculty do not lecture; faculty are tutors. All students are responsible for learning all the new knowledge. Usually, as prerequisites, you develop the student’s group, problem solving, change management and self assessment skill. The group uses strategies to develop team and individuals learning, with good opportunities to reflect and critique their own learning. 115- 119 Creating the problems The criteria for problems are: 120 1. the problems must achieve the target “learning goals.” 2. the learning goals are achievable. For single courses (for example in hybrid or conventional programs) for each problem allow about 3 to 5 hours of study for an individual student; each problem would have about 6 to 10 objectives for a group of 6 students so that each will research/teach the others. 3. the learning outcomes are consistent with the stage of development and builds on and activates prior knowledge. 4. goals might integrate knowledge, skills and attitudes across subjects and disciplines. The problems must represent “professional practice” and must contain “cues” that will direct the student to select “your learning objectives for the problem.” The scenario created can be a single scenario, or you could build a sequence of scenarios but each would expect the same 3 to 5 hours of student study. 5. the scenario contains “cues” that will trigger the desired search for learning objectives; the learning outcomes expected by the teacher are identified correctly by the students. 6. the scenario includes an appropriate level of complexity.
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7. the scenario allows an openness. This challenges the student’s thinking and expects the student to integrate the new knowledge with the old. 8. the scenario is motivational and relevant. 9. the scenario is similar to one we might encounter in professional practice; (for example, in Engineering this might include rating, debottlenecking, design, trouble shooting, labour relationships, team work, public, safety, sustainability, monitoring compliance with legislative regulations). 10. promotes student activity. 11. any data given should be raw data (like encountered in practice). 12. the scenario identifies the context, gives a concrete scenario and clearly identifies the expected task without spelling out specifics. 13. The problem scenario is usually less than one page. Other suggestions about creating problems are available. 121, 122 Scaffolding and prompts You can provide prompts, as script, when circulating among groups or as a tutor dedicated to one group. Example prompts for critical thinking suggested by Hmelo-Silver and Barrows, 123 and Wong.124 The task and morale aspects of group work are facilitated by the chair. 125 How it works Assign students to permanent groups of 4 to 8 (usually 5 to 6) for the full semester. Designate chairpersons for each meeting. You make available pertinent resources, including the ppts or visuals you used to use when you lectured on this topic. Introduce PBL, rationalize its use, explain what’s in it for them. 126, 127 There are three formal meetings. Goals meeting, 50 min. Usually Friday. Students read over problem, identify what they know and what they don’t know, create learning objectives and have them validated by the tutor. Contract with other students in his/her group to research, learn, create teach notes and return to teach the others at the next meeting. Peer and self assess group process and chairperson effectiveness. Individual research and preparation to teach ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Teach meeting, 50 min. May be during class time or at the group’s preference. They teach each other. Peer and self assess the group process, chairperson effectiveness and quality of the teaching. Feedback meeting. 50 min. Each brings to the meeting a 10 min question and answer on a topic other than the one he/she taught. Groups select most appropriate question from among the 6 options provided by the members. You obtain that question and give it to another group to solve in writing. After 30 min, identify the source of the question and the group that created the question sends a person to mark the answer. Peer and self assess group process, chairperson effectiveness. You collect all the group questions and marked answers and mark. Then the cycle repeats with new chairpersons for each of the three meetings. 128 On Figure 2, the codes could be 1, 11, 45, 63 and 7, 6, 14, 48, 63. Variations Different prerequiste training in process skills. Chemical Engineering at McMaster requires workshop training in problem solving, self assessment, time and stress management, group skills, change management. 19 McMaster MD program: candidates won’t be admitted without skills in problem solving and group work. Measured by observers of group doing simulated PBL task. McMaster oncology nursing; start with problem solving strategy workshop before PBL. Antwerp for all disciplines: starts with workshops on team skills before PBL.129 Chikara, electrical engineering: starts with team skills plus an introduction to PBL. 130 Variations in student learning: In some programs, individuals in the group contract to learn the material related to one learning objective so each has different topics. 21 In other programs, all students contract to learn the material for all learning objectives ie all learn the same topics 21 and then at the “teach meeting” they discuss, critique and share. Some use between 5 and 20 autonomous groups of 5 to 6/group and the tutor is available in the room but does not scaffold or interact unless asked. Others provide a tutor (or peer tutor) for each group. Others, the tutor scaffolds and circulates among the various groups, usually a maximum of 5 groups. The tutor may be with a group or, for many groups, he/she circulates. If there is a tutor with the group then the groups progress at their own pace so at any one time, all may be at different levels. McMaster’s individual PBL. PBEE by Luis Branda. 131 [empower 2,3,4,5,7,8] In this version there is was one instructor with a class of 100 to 150. You pose a problem. Class hour 1, individuals list, on a standard form, ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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his/her prioritized list of learning issues prompted by the problem; two require justification. On leaving the class individuals give a copy to Branda. Then, before the next class, each does self-directed learning on the top two learning issues. Branda, prepares an individual test question for each different learning issue. In the next class, each picks up his/her personalized four questions and, with access to their learning notes, spends 1 h answering the questions. When asked about the phenomenal time commitment for him he responded that there really were only 5 or 6 major learning issues. He also has created standardized forms for all the activities. One case/ week; 4 concurrent conventional courses. For details see Resources for PBL, (download from the PBL site on the web, p F 45 to F 52). 131 On Figure 2, the codes are 2, 11, 44. McMaster Chemical Engineering. PBL for learning engineering economics 126 SG 5 – 6 tutorless; three, 1h meeting and 1 case/wk. They teach each other, assess by creating exams; assess journal and receive peer feedback; concurrent 4 conventional courses. Admit or pretrain: minimum of 30 h workshops on problem solving, stress management, change management, self-assessment, group work plus 6 h intro to PBL before PBL. Proof, rationale: motivate. 75, 21,46 On Figure 2, knowledge 1, 11, 45, 64; prerequisites: 7, 9, 20, 51, 48. Physics, Dublin. [empower 2,3,4,5,6, 7, 8, 10, 11,12] You pose a problem. SG 6; 2 to 3, 2-h sessions/ wk. 20 to 30 class size. tutor circulates. 1 problem/wk; student chair and reporter. 24 problems/ semester. Assess: each wk. SG written & oral. SG & individuals self-assess. Reflective journal, Final open-bk. exam. On Figure 2, the codes could be 11, 46, 64. 132, 133 Republic Polytechnic, Singapore 134, 34 [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,11,12] One case/day; 0 concurrent courses. You pose the problem, Tutor/group of 5. Goals: SG 45min, SDL 135 min, tutor SG 60 min rationalize consolidate, SDL prepare 60 min, Assess: SG presents 120 min. On Figure 2, the codes are 1, 11, 47, 65. Nursing, Sydney University. 135 Weekly schedule: 1h lec; 1 h SDL; 2 h lab skills; 2 h student directed PBL. [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8, 10 11,12] You pose the problem. Students identify learning issues, individuals contract to research, return to group for discussion/resolution. Script prompts are given. Facilitator. One case lasts three weeks. 3 concurrent traditional lecture courses. On Figure 2, the codes are 1, 10, 43; 11, 44, 46, 64; 8, 29, 52. Delaware, cell biology; concurrent other courses 68, 136 Class < 60; You pose the problem. Goals SG 4-5, ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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tutor circulates, SDL, reconvene SG to report, apply, refine. For class >60, Goals SG 4-5 tutor circulates/ facilitates, perhaps mini-lecture; reconvene SG to explore, apply refine. On Figure 2 this is 1, 10, 11, 46, 64. Proof and rationale. compared with the conventional lecture approach, PBL gives comparable subject knowledge marks; better clinical or trouble shooting skills; better problem solving, team work, confidence, lifelong learning, higher motivation, better long term retention of the knowledge, improved efficiency in the graduation rates with fewer dropouts, and the development of deep instead of surface learning. Exit and alumni responses are extremely positive. 19 3.21. Option 26b. Problem-based knowledge and skills focus scaffold (knowledge in single subject and skills to use knowledge, Schmidt et al.’s 30 type II; process skill prerequisite; scaffold additional process skill development) [empower 2,3,5,6,7,8,.9,10,11,12] Cooperative Problem-based learning .137 Uses training in cooperative learning as preparation for Problembased learning. No lectures, one instructor with 19 groups of 5 to 6 or 60 class size. Used Coop learning model as scaffolding. Authentic problem posted 2 days before the first Goals meeting. Individual write out problem restatement and problem identification (PR&PI). With individual PR&PIs available, each group creates a group PR&PI, individuals contract to learn/teach different topics. Individuals create teach notes and the SG meets for the teach meeting outside class. To monitor and give feedback about the quality of the teach, the compiled set of teach notes for each group are given to a peer group for a 2 h discussion/feedback of the teach materials. You monitor and may, via scaffolding, provide feedback (quiz, tutorial, minilecture, advice). At the next meeting groups reach consensus on a solution and reflect. This is followed by a group presentation (via oral or written) of solution and justification with written peer feedback. You monitor, give feedback about group’s solutions and offer probable solution. Elaboration via what if? Self and peer assessment of group performance. Reflections can be individual or team. Scaffolding is important especially for the first two to three of Problembased learning problems. Six problem-based learning cycles in 14 week semester. Last problem was posed by industry; students had to visit site to obtain data. Proof, rationale: more confidence and marks. 137 On Figure 2, the codes are 7, 20, 44, 64; 1-2 combo, 11, 46, 64. Challenge based learning or Scaffolded PBL. PBL Pose an authentic challenge problem. Students work ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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in groups of 3, each group worked 1 to 2 weeks on each of 8 challenge problems (such as What determines who can jump higher?), share information across the groups, guided and scaffolded by you, short lectures given when students realize they need more understanding. Some lectures moved to the web as audio-enabled powerpoints, on-line diagnostic and formative assessment homework tutorials. 138, 139 On Figure 2, the codes are 8, 23 and 1, 13, with 10, 40 as needed. Alberta Pharmacy44 Alberta, Pharmacy. Learn knowledge and professional skills. Individualized. Script with Written problem, worksheets and ask students to follow the PHARMA skills procedure. Assess: Quiz and feedback about each stage in the PHARMA process is given. On Figure 2, the codes are 3, 12, and 8, 24. 3.22. Option 27b. Problem-based knowledge and skills focus (knowledge in single subject and skills to use knowledge, Schmidt et al.’s 30 type II; process skill prerequisite; tutor in group for clinical skill development) 140- 142 [empower 2,3,5,6,7,8,.9,10,11,12] This is similar to Option 25a but now skills development is an additional outcome. Usually a tutor is with each group. The tutor scaffolds the development of the skills (which is usually clinical skills, or skill in police work). 143-146 A number of training materials are available to help develop the tutor skills. 147-149 Creating the problems Usually a series of problems that follow one clinical case are addressed over several weeks. The first problem poses the situation; the second followup problem usually provides feedback about tests. Examples are available. 120 Variations McMaster Medical School, original version. PBL Type II where the objective is to learn new subject knowledge and to develop clinical skills. [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12] Pose series of problems in sequence related to the same case. Per week there are two, 2 h sessions/week with tutor SG 5-6/wk, with SDL. Focus on body systems & clinical skills; one problem/wk; concurrent clinic tutored; MC, short MEQ, OSCE, Triple Jump, self, peer, tutor assess. Admit or pretrain: MD program: won’t be admitted without skills in problem solving and group work. Measured by observers of group doing simulated PBL tasks. On Figure 2, this is 1, 11, ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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47,54,65; prerequisites, 6,15; skill development, 8, 21, 55, 54, 65. McMaster Medical School aPBL 150 [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12] Pose series of problems in sequence related to the same case. Two, 2 h SG 5 to 6/wk with SDL, Focus on concepts (like oxygen and its travel through the body); from 1 to 3 problems/wk. Tues. SG 10, two tutors, professional topics; Mon. Fri. 3h lec that synthesize. Assess: Progress test MC, some self, peer, tutor assess. Admit: CASper, 151 Multiple Mini Interview.152 On Figure 2, knowledge, 1, 10, 26, 11, 47, 65; prerquiuistes 6, 15 and skills, 8, 21, 55, 54, 65. McMaster OT PT program. 153 Three concurrent courses, two PBL, 1 clinic. [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12] SG 5-8 with tutor, 2h Goal, 10 h SDL with all learning all key issues, 2 h SG tutor consolidate. 1 case/week Coordinated clinic, tutor facilitates. Assess: MC, self, peer, tutor assess, create scenario for data. On Figure 2, knowledge 1, 11, 47, 65; skills 8, 27, 16, 71. Adelaide, Medicine, Socratic tutor, [empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12] 154 150 students. Four 2h sessions/case. Tutor records ideas from SG for LO. SDL individuals or SG one or more LO; Tutor offers suggestions of resources. Individual learn and teach each other outside or in class. Tutor facilitates until knowledge base understood. Then moves into clinical work with the next phase of problem information with test result data; simulated patient, tutor , new LO; SDL individual or SG. Then the tutor and clinical specialist, mini lecture; new LO; SDL individual or SG; journal writing required. On Figure 2, the codes are 1, 10, 11, 46, 64 with skills 8, 27, 18, 69. Pharmacy, class 100+ with tutor Socratic,[empower 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12] 154 3h/case. Individual or SG read case list LO one wk before class. Tutor Socratic discuss plan; individuals or SG create Symptoms Observations Assessment Plan, SOAP; 50 min. SDL but no class tutor and SG meet to synthesize. 2h class tutor Socratic views, analysis, resolution. Assess: reflections SOAP. On Figure 2, the codes are 1, 11, 55 and 8, 21, 55, 66. 3.23. Option 28b. Project-led problem-based learning. PL-PBL32 Open-ended trigger from client posed to students, they create proposal, obtain approval for work breakdown schedule, goals and budget. In the PBL phase students identify what they need to know, learn and teach each other, then return to the project and complete work schedule. Client assesses. [empower: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11] Creating the problems ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Client/you pose trigger. Triggers do not describe the client’s problem; they initiate a creative and critical response by the students. Students use the trigger, and in conjunction with the client, receive approval for a project; example: sustainability, customer satisfaction, create a poem film and hidden Chichester city. How it works week 1. In response to a “trigger” SG identifies: client, background, aims, objectives , business benefits , constraints, main project outputs and delivery . Week 2. Project proposal: title, premise, outline or narrative summary, notes on style, form and approach (set up project: supervisor, client, project team questions client in response to the trigger; discuss/questionnaire; student group the brainstorms and creates initial project proposal for client’s approval ). Week 3. Project plan: work breakdown structure , schedule, roles & responsibilities, resources, budget, monitoring, risks and opportunities. Week 4: PBL starts: outline the learning the SG will need to undertake in order to gain the skills and knowledge to deliver this project. Prompts: How will you gain these skills? What will you need that is not already provided by the curriculum? Create a learning needs statement. Proof, rationale: student ownership. 32 On Firue 2, a possible route is 5, 8, 27, 18, 69. 4. Assessment options Many of the options given in Figure 2 are described in detail. 155, 156 These are discussed following the pattern given in Figure 2. 4.1 Questions The options include multiple choice, MC or MCQ, 155 modified essay MEQ, 155 fill in the blanks, write a precis or an essay, solving problems (that are posed by the students or by the tutor) and the progress test. 156 4.2 Written The options include reports , student work, journals and standard forms. Reports include essays, 155 research, literature used, progress and design. Student work includes homework. reflections, teach notes 156 and summaries.156 Journals included prompted journals or critical learning incident, 155, 157 free write, day book, assessment (example forms 154 and example completed in Appendix 120) and learning journals. 155 Forms ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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include activity forms, 115 PBL4 forms,158 highlighters, 155 and assessment forms to be used for self, peer, tutor and client assessment of the stuent’s performance. The PBL4 forms158 are used at Temasek Polytech in Singapore as six structured forms to help students through the PBL process. Form 1: problem statement; the individuals and SG restate the problem in their own words and write down the objective or approach to be taken to solve the problem. Form 2: problem inquiry. SG brainstorm and list additional inquiries or information needed to better understand the problem and the justification of each; after that information has been gathered the SG creates a block diagram plan of how to solve the problem. Form 3: the SG lists the learning issues, the rationale/justification, name of the person contracting to teach the material and proposed date for the teach meeting. Form 4: Reflections, part 1. Individuals reflect after they have received all the teaching from their group members. And apply the new knowledge to solve the problem. Part 2: explore the possibility that a better outcome could be achieved beyond the one initially proposed by the group. Part 3: elaborate on other situations where you could apply the new knowledge. Form 5: discovery, individuals summarize the key resources/references used to learn the material each contracted to learn and subsequently teach. Concisely note the key information from each resources. Part 2, write the key points you plan to use in the teach. Give this form to all members of your SG at lest one day before the teach meeting. Form 6: Deliverables; SG summarizes a) the strategy used, b) the challenges and problems encountered, c) the limitations of the solutions, d) SG reflection on possible improvements, e) operating manual on the use of the solution (if applicable). 158 4.3 Diagrams Here the options are concept map, 155, 159 fishbone, cause effect, symptom cause, argument or reasoning diagrams.160 Example symptom cause diagrams and argument diagrams are given in Chapter 6. 51 4.4 Oral Oral forms of assessment include a talk aloud protocol analysis, interview or a speech. Sometimes the oral presentation is interrupted as in the OSCE, 155, 156 Triple Jump 155, 156 and Tripse. 161 4.5 Simulations The options include tutorial, computer, simulated patient, written problems and the portable patient problem ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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pack, P4.155, 155 4.6 Empowering students with parts of the assessment process. A 2 h workshop on self-assessment (MPS 3 at the MPS URL) 45 is very effective. Without such training, the students tend to think that self assessment is an opportunity to give themselves and their friends 100%. Help them to see that assessment is 1. about performance and not personal worth. 2. based on evidence and not gut feelings. 3. done for a purpose and under specified conditions. 4. done in the context of published observable goals/objectives with measurable criteria and agreed-upon forms of evidence. 5. based on a wide range of evidence. Parts of the assessment: a. gather many different forms of evidence: use self and peer assessment for cooperative group work, day books for design projects, teach notes, worksheets for learning issues activities, PBL4 charts, Temasek PBL journal. b. have open-book exams or tests to which you will select from their submitted questions for one, two, most, all of the questions on the exam. (I usually put one of my questions on but use their questions for all of the rest.) The process is that different groups of students will individually submit questions for different topics in the course; each individual will submit a question and an answer. Copies of these will be circulated to everyone in the class. This will be submitted about 3 weeks before exam. For a class of 80, this means each will have to recheck and validate the answers for 80 questions. What a great review! c. give them a chance to contract for the % that the final exam mark will contribute to their final mark. My experience is to give them the best of a 60-40 split between term work and final exam but that they may contract in writing with me for any % between 10 and 90% by 3 weeks before the final. 5. Select an Option Introducing a problem first is motivational and helps students see the value and use of what they are learning. Don’t imply “Trust me, you’ll need this knowledge sometime.” Instead provide an interesting, challenging ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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example of where the upcoming knowledge would be used. Start the experience with a professionallysignificant problem, a puzzle, a demonstration. 21, 59, 60 The problem can lead to one of three options 1) learning new knowledge, 2) learning professional skills (such as engineering design, police procedural skills, veterinary or medical clinical skills, creative writing skills) or 3) learning both new knowledge and professional skills. For any learning or skill acquisition there are learning objectives, LO; learning activities, Learn, and assessment that the goals/objectives have been achieved. There are many, many options, Some are easy to implement, some individuals can do these in his/her courses, some are best done as a Department, some are more challenging to implement. Start with the program and course outcomes you want to achieve: for knowledge acquisition, code a, consider options 7, 16, 17, 24 or 25. For knowledge and skill development, code b, consider options 6, 13, 18, 26, 27 or 28. For skill development, code c, consider options 8, 9, 14, 19, 20 (case, inquiry, research, project-based synthesis) or 23 (action learning). For deep learning, code d, consider the options 10 (PLTL), 11 (JiTT), 12 (PLGI), 15 (MEA/team learning), 21 (POGIL) or 22. 6. Summary The educational contributions of David Himmelblau and Gary Powers are extended by describing a broad spectrum of learning environments that start with a problem. Many of these are characterized in the literature as being simply PBL or claiming to be similar to PBL (for example, POGIL, MEA, project-based synthesis). In this paper, the different outcomes from the learning environment and the degree to which students are empowered with the learning process are criteria used to help identify the subtle differences of the options in 33 learning environments. Elaborations and examples are given for 23 of these. Options for assessment are cited. Brief suggestions are given about how to select an effective learning environment with which you are comfortable. 7. Acknowledgements Thanks to Professor Barb Bloemhof, McMaster University, for her helpful feedback. 8. References (1) Himmelblau, D. M., Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering, 5th ed., Prentice-Hall Int. Series, 1989 (2) Edgar, Thomas F. David Mautner Himmelblau, “Optimization of chemical processes,” McGraw Hill 1988 and updated in 2001 with Leon S. Lasdon as additional McGraw Hill 2001 ACS Paragon Pluscoauthor. Environment
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(3) Himmelblau, D. M.“Process analysis by statistical methods,” Wiley, New York, 1968 (4) Himmelblau, D. M.“ Decomposition of Large Scale Problems,” Elsevier 1973 (5) Himmelblau, D.M. and K.B. Bishoff, “ Process Analysis and Simulation-Deterministic Systems,” Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited 1968 (6) Rudd, Dale F. Gary J. Powers , Jeffrey J. Siirola, “ Process Synthesis,” Pearson Education Canada, 1973 (7) Teague, Thomas L. Gary J. Powers, “ Diagnosis Procedures from Fault Trees,”.Department of Chemical Engineering.Paper 90, Carnegie Mellon University 1979 (8) Powers, G.J. and S. A. Lapp, “Design Sciences, Inc.,” 105 Gadshill Place, Pittsburgh, PA (9) ABET accreditation, see http://www.abet.org/accreditation (10) CEAB accreditation, see http://www.engineerscanada.ca/e/files/Accreditation_Criteria_Procedures_2010.pdf (11) Woods, D.R., Daina Briedis, and Angelo Perna, “Professional skills needed by our graduates,” Chem Eng Ed. 47 (2) 81-90, 2013 (12) Felder, R.M. and R. Brent,“Designing and Teaching Courses to satisfy ABET engineering criteria, J. Engng. Ed. 92 (1) 7-25, 2003 (13) Shulman, L.J., e al., “The ABET “Professional Skills” - Can They be Taught/ Can They be Assessed?” J. Engng. Ed. Jan., 41-55, 2005 (14) Felder, R.M., D.R. Woods, J.E. Stice and A. Rugarcia, "The Future of Engineering Education," II Teaching Methods that work," Chemical Engineering Education, 34, 1, 26-39, 2000 (15) Woods, D.R., R.M. Felder, J.E. Stice and A. Rugarcia Torres,"The Future of Engineering Education," III Developing Critical Skills,@ Chemical Engineering Education, 34, 2, 108-117, 2000 (16) Woods, D.R. “450 Ideas to Improve Student Learning,” forthcoming book., (17) Bligh, Donald“What the use of lectures?” Jossey Bass, 1998 (18) Chickering, A.W. and Z.F. Gamson, “Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education,” AAHE Bulletin, Mar, 3-7, 1987 (19) Woods, D.R. “PBL: An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of authentic Problem-based Learning (aPBL)” Chem. Eng. Ed. 46 (2) 135-144, 2012 (20) Gibbs, Graham, “A-Z of student-focussed teaching strategies,” Educational Methods Unit, Oxford Polytechnic, Headington, UK, undated (21) Prince, M.J. and R.M. Felder, “Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, comparisons and Research Bases,” J. of Eng. Ed. 95 (2) 123-138, 2006 (22) Luebben, Aimee J, ``Effects of Problem-based Learning on Student Internship experiences,` paper presented at the RESNA 28 th Annual Conference, Atlanta GA, 2005 web.resna.org/conference/proceedings/2005/Policy/Luebben.html (23) Harden, R. M. & Margery H. Davis, “The continuum of problem-based learning,” Medical Teacher, Vol. 20, No. 4, 1998 (24) Harden , R.M. “The integration ladder: a tool for curriculum planning and evaluations,” Medical Education, 34, 551-557, 2000 (25) Andersen, Lee, D. Boud and FR. Cohen “Experience based Learning: contemporary issues,” ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Chapter in “Understanding Adult Education and Training,” 2 nd ed. G. Foley, ed, 225-239, Allen & Unwin, Sydney 1995 (26) Barrows, H.S. “A Taxonomy of problem-based learning methods,” Med. Educ. 20, 481 -486, 1986 (27) Michaelsen, L.K., L. D. Fink, A. Knight, “Designing Effective Group Activities: lessons for classroom teaching and faculty development,” To Improve the Academy, 16, 373-397, 1997 (28) Michaelsen, L.K.,, A. Knight, and L. D. Fink, “Team-based Learning: a Tranformative Use of Small Groups in College Teaching,” Stylus, Sterling, VA, 2005 (29) Margetson, D., “Is there a future for problem-based learning?” Higher Education Review, 23 (2) 33-47, 1991 (30) Schmidt, H.G., et al.,“Constructivist, Problem-based Learning Does Work: A meta-analysis of Curricular Comparisons Involving a Single Medical School,” Educational Psychologist, 44 (4) 227, 2009 (31) Mennin, S., et al., “Position paper on Problem-based learning,” Education for Health, 16 (1) 98-113, 2003 (32) Hanney, Roy and M. Savi-Braden ‘Working at Problems: PBL in Media Practice Education,” http://www.academia.edu/1183880/Working_at_Problems_PBL_In_Media_Practice_Education downloaded Mar, 2013 (33) Hanney, Roy, ADM-HEA PBL Learning and Teaching Project Fund; Understanding the pedagogical implications of using PBL for teaching and managing and assessing work based learning projects in media production, Undated http://www.adm.heacademy.ac.uk/library/files/adm-hea-projects/hanney-pbl.pdf (34) Savin-Baden, Maggi “Challenging Models and Perspectives in Problem-based Learning,” in Management of Change: implementation of Problem-based and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Erik de Graaff and Anette Kolmos, ed, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam , 9-30, 2007 (35) Savin-Baden, Maggi, “An Introduction to Problem-based Learning: a user guide,” Coventry University, UK undated http://cuba.coventry.ac.uk/maggisb/files/2011/07/booklet_formatted_15-10-10_v4.pdf downloaded March 5, 2013 (36) Savin-Baden, M, “ Learning spaces, Learning Bridges and Troublesomeness: the power of diverse approaches to problem-based learning,” 2000 www.tp.edu.sg/pbl_maggi_ savin-baden.pdf (37) Ozkan, H., et al., “Task-based Learning Program for Clinical Years of Medical Education,” Education for Health, 19 (1) 32-42, 2006 (38) Harden, R.M., et al., “Task-based learning: an answer to integration and problem-based learning in the clinical years,” Med. Ed. 34, 391-397, 2000 (39) Wales, C.E., R.A. Stager and T.R. Long, “Guided Engineering Design,” West Publishing Company, St. Paul. MN, 1974 (40) Wales, C.E., and R.A. Stager, “Educational Systems Design,” West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 1973 (41) Woods, D.R., “Problem-based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL,” 2 nd ed., self published, Waterdown, Ontario, 1997 p. A-16 Downloadable from the web http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/pbl/PBL.htm And scan down to locate the Resources book (42) Rudd, D.F., and C.C. Watson, “Strategy of Process Engineering,” John Wiley and sons, New York, 1968 (43) Woods, D.R., “Problem-based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL,” 2 nd ed., self published, Waterdown, Ontario, 1997, p. A-25 Downloadable from the web http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/pbl/PBL.htm And scan down to locate the Resources book (44) Schuster, B., D. Wright, A. Ponting, and T. Murzyn, “:Jim Keston: a patient case study,” a PharmaLearn publication, Universiyt of Alberta, Edmonton, 2003 http://www.phamacy.ualberta.ca/Cox.htm (45) McMaster Problem Solving Program, http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/MPS/default1.htm ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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(48) Checkland, Peter, “Systems Thinking, Systems Practice,” John Wiley and Son, Chichester, 1981 (49) Woods, D.R., A.N. Hrymak and J.R. Couper, “Conceptual Process Design, Process Improvement and Trouble shooting,@ Chapter 16 in “Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook @ L.F. Albright, ed., CRC press, 1267-1436, 2009 (50) Fogler, H.S. and S.E. LeBlanc, “Strategies for Creative Problem Solving,” Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995 (51) Woods, D.R., ASuccessful Trouble Shooting for process engineers: a complete course in case studies@ Wiley VCH, Wertime, Germany, 2005 (52) Woods, D.R. AAn Evidence-based Strategy for Problem Solving,@ The Journal of Engineering Education, 89, 4, 443-460, 2000 (53) Bandura, A., “Self-efficacy: the exercise of control,” W.H. Freeman New York, 1997 (54) Entwistle, N “The Use of Research on student learning in quality assessment,” in “Improving students learning - through assessment and evaluation,” Aug., 1995 G. Gibbs ed. Oxford Centre for http://www.lgu.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/isltp-entwistle.html Downloaded April, 1999 (55) Roth, V., et al., “Peer-Led Team Learning, Handbook for Team Leaders,” Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001 (56) Gosser, D., et al., “Peer-led Team Learning: a guidebook,” Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River NJ, 2001 serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/mea/what.html (57) Eberlein, T., et al., “Pedagogies of engagement in science: A comparison of PBL, POGIL and PLTL,” Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ. 36 (4) 262-273, 2008 (58) Nunes de Oliveira, J.M, “Project-based learning in engineering: the Agueda Experience,” in Management of Change: implementation of Problem-based and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Erik de Graaff and Anette Kolmos, ed, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam , 169-180, 2007 (59) Crough, C.H., et al., “ Peer Instruction: engaging students one-on-one, all at once,” Research-Based reform of University Physics, E.F. Redish and P. Cooney, eds., pp. 1-55 (American Association of Physics Teachers, College Park, MD, 2007 (60) Mazur, Eric, “Peer instruction: A user’s manual, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1977 (61) Landis, C.R., et al., “Chemistry ConcepTests: A Pathway to Interactive Classrooms,” Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2002 (62) Hughes-Hallet, D., et al., “Calculus ConcepTests,” John Wiley and sons, 2003 (63) Green, P., “Peer Instruction in Astronomy,” Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2002 (64) Hake, R.R. website http://bit.ly/9nGd3M (65) Hake, R.R. “Socratic Pedagogy in the Introductory Physics Lab,” Phys Teach 30, 546-544 http:// bit.ly/9tSTdB (66) Litzinger, T.A., L.R. Lattuca, Roger G. Hadgraft, W.C. Newstetter, “Engineering Education ad the Development of Expertise,” J. Engng Ed. 100 (1) 1230-150, 2011 (67) Lewis, S.E., & J.E. Lewis, “ Departing from Lectures: An Evaluation of a Peer-Led Guided Inquiry Alternative,” J. Chem. Educ., 82, 135-139, 2005 (68) Duch, Barbara J., S. E. Groh and D.E. Allen, “The Power of Problem-based Learning: a practical “how to” for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline,”, Stylus Publishing, Sterling, Virginia, 2001 (69) Schell, K., “The Scientific Basis of Nursing,” syllabus for course 240, School of Nursing, University of Delaware, Downloaded from the web, Feb, 2013 (70) Lesh, R, M. Hoover, B. Hole, A. Kelly and T. Post, “Principles for Developing thought-revealing activities for students and teachers,” Chapter 21 in “Research Design in Mathematics and Science Education,” A.Kelly and R. Lesh, ed, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., Mahwah, NJ 591-646, 2000 (71) serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/mea/what.html (72) Zawojewski, J.S. et al., “ Modeling Perspective on learning and teaching in engineering ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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education, Chapter 1 in Models and Modeling in Engineering Education,” J.S Zawojewshi, H.A. Diefes-Dux and K.J. Bowman, eds., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2008 (73) Siewiorek, N. et al. “Engineering, reflection and lifelong learning” ASEE Conference, 2010 www.modelsandmodeling.pitt.edu/Publications_files/Engineering%20Reflection%29and%20Life%20L ong%20%20Learning.pdf (74) Moore, T.J., “Model-eliciting activities: a case-based approach for getting students interested in material Science and Engineering,” Journal of Materials Education, 30(5-6), 295 - 310, 2008 matdl.org/jme/files/2008/06/moore_jme_model_eliciting_activities.pdf Downloaded Feb 12, 2013 (75) Gibbs, G.,“Teaching more students: problems and course design strategies,” Polytechnics & Colleges Funding Council, Oxford Polytechnic, Oxford, UK, 1992 (76) Quinian, K.M., et al., “PBL at Cornell University’s College of Veterinary Medicine: implications for undergraduate education,” PBL Insight, a newletter from Sanford University, 3 (3) 1, 4, 2000 http://ww.samford,edu/pbl (77) Cowdroy, Rob, A. Kingsland, and A. Williams, “Achieving Cost-effective Problem-based learning: dispelling myths about problem-based learning,” in “Management of Change: implementation of Problem-based and Project-based Learning in Engineering,” Erik de Graaff and Anette Kolmos, ed, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam , 45-68, 2007 (78) Cowdroy, R. , “Beyond excellence: achieving brilliance in engineering education,” Proceedings of http://www.sefi.be/wp-content/abstracts/1252.pdf (79) STAR legacy (80) Asplund, Carl Johan M., and Paula F. Jordan, “Designing Multidiscipline Cases,” International Journal of Case Method Research & Application (2006) XVIII, 3, 288, 2006 (81) Hansen, A.J., “Reflections of a Case Writer: writing teaching cases” Section IV in C. R. Christensen, “Teaching and the Case Method: texts, Cases and Reading,”, Harvard Business School, Boston, 1989 (82) Maufefeette-Leenders, L.A. et al., “ Learning with Cases,” http://webkelley.com/HBS/maufefetteLearning%20with%20Cases.pdf Downloaded Mar, 2013 83) Kardos, Geza, “Case Studies in Engineering,” Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, http://www.civeng.carleton.ca/ECL/ Downloaded Mar., 2013 (84) Harvard Business School, hbsp.harvard.edu/product/participant-centered-learning (85) Rosen, L.S., “Cases in Accounting and Business Administration,” McGraw Hill, Toronto, 1968 (86) “Case Studies in Sport Management,” http://journals.humankinetics.com/using-cases-as-an-instructor Downloaded Mar., 2013 (87) Minner, D.D., A.J. Levy and J. Century, “Inquiry-based Instruction - what is it and does it matter? Results from a research synthesis Years 1984 to 2002,” J of Research in Science Teaching, 47 (4) 474-496, 2009 (88) Justice, C., et al., “A Grammar for Inquiry: Linking Goals and Methods in a Collaboratively Taught Social Sciences Inquiry Course,” Special Publication of the Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Toronto, http://www.stlhe.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/2001-Blizzard-McMaster.pdf Downloaded Mar., 2013 (89) Hudspith, B and H. Jenkins, “Teaching the Art of Inquiry,” Green Guide No. 3, Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Halifax, NS, 2001 (90) Roy, Dale, Erika Kustra, Paola Borin, “Good inquiry questions,” http://cll.mcmaster.ca/resources/misc/good_inquiry_question.html] 2003 (91) Http://www.inquiryhub.org website for more on inquiry (92) Jenkins, Alan “Realising the Humboldtian vision: Supporting undergraduate research for all students in all disciplines,” workshop notes, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Dec., 2012 (93) Levy, Philippa, “Exploring IBL,” CURL Spring, Members Meeting April, 2007 (94) Levy, Phillipa, “Embedding Inquiry and Research into Mainstream Higher Education: A UK Perspective,” Council on Undergraduate Research, 32 (1) Fall, 2011 www.cur.org (95) Spronken-Smith, R. “Undergraduate research and inquiry-based learning: is there a difference? Insights from Research in New Zealand,” Council on Undergraduate Research, 30 (4), 2010 (96) Nelson, Eric “Motivate students to learn,” CTE Cornell Downloaded June 2012, 2012 (97) Jenkins, A., and Mick Healey, “Research-led or research-based Undergraduate Curricula,” Chapter ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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8, “University Teaching in Focus : a learning centred approach, Chalmers, D. and Hunt, L. (eds), Acer, Camberwell, Victoria, Australia, pp128-144, 2012 (98) Otis’ lamp “Self authorship and Baxter Magolda,” otislamb.blogspotca/2011/07/self-autorship-baxter- magolda.html, 2012 (99) Wilson, E.B., “An Introduction to Scientific Research,” McGraw Hill, New York, 1952 (100) Seider, Warren D., Chemical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Design Projects, personal communication, 1995 (101) Woods, D.R., T.W. Hoffman and A.I. Johnson, "Teaching Experience with Design and Simulation Projects", Chem. Eng. Education, pp. 96-104, 1973 (102) Washington University- Monsanto process design case studies; initiated by Buford Smith and James Fair, developed and distributed in the 1960s and 1970s. Example, Fair, J. and Buford Smith Design Case Study 4, “Cyclohexane manufacture; preliminary design and economic evaluation,” http://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=hotseries&q=se%3A%22Design+case+study%22 (103) Leifer, Larry, “Suite-210: a Model for Global Product-based-learning with Corporate Partners,” (CIA'97) ASME CIA conference, 1997 http://me210.stanford.edu http://www.asme.org/education/enged/awards/ciapapers/leifer.htm (1 of 6) (104) Woods, D.R., ASuccessful Trouble Shooting for process engineers: a complete course in case studies@ Wiley VCH, Wertime, Germany, 2005 (105) Capraro, Robert M., and S.W. Slough “Project-Based Learning An Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach,” paper given in Papers\PBLoptions\Project based learning, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2009 (106) Hanson,, D.M., “Instructor’s Guide to Process-Oriented Guided-Inquiry Learning,” . Lisle, IL: Pacific Crest, 2006 (107) Karplus, R., et al., “Science Teaching and the Development of Reasoning,” University of California, Berkeley, 1979 (108) Yezierski, Ellen J., et al., “POGIL Implementation in Large Classes: Strategies for Planning, Teaching, and Management” Chapter 6 in Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) pp 60–71, ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 994 September 29, 2008 (109) website for details about POGIL www.pogil.org (110) Kolb, A., and Kolb, D. A., “Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education,” Academy of Management Learning and Education, v. 4. n. 2, p. 193-212, 2005 (111) McCarthy, Bernice, “The 4MAT system,” Excel, Inc., Oak Brook, IL , 1980 (112) Andresen, L., Boud, D., and Cohen, R., “Experience-Based Learning,” in Foley, G., Understanding Adult Education and Training, second edition, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2000. (113) Anon “Study Guides and Strategies: Action Learning” http://www.studygs.net/actionlearn.htm downloaded Mar., 2013 (114) Anon “Action learning sets,” http://www.intrac.org/data/files/resources/733/Action-Learning-Sets-An-INTRAC-guide.pdf downloaded Mar., 2013 (115) Woods, D.R. “Problem based Learning: how to gain the most from PBL,” 2 nd edition, Woods Publishing, Waterdown ON. 1997 (116) Barrows, H.S. “What your Tutor May Never Tell Yopu: a guide for medical students in problem-based learning,” Southern Illinois University, Springfield IL, 1996 (117) Boud, D, and Grahame Feletti, “The Challenge of Problem based Learning,” Kogan Page, London, 1991 (118) Wee, Lynda and Megan Keh YiH Chyn, “Authentic Problem-based Learning: rewriting business education,” Prentice Hall, 2002 (119) Barrows, H.S. and Lynda Wee, “Principles and Practive of aPBL,” Pearson Prentice Hall, Singapore, 2007 (120) Woods, D.R., “Preparing for PBL” 3 rd ed., self published, 2006 Chapter 5, downloadable from the web http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/innov1.htm (121) Drummond-Young, M., and E.A. Mohide, “Developing Problems for use in Problem-based learning,” Chapter 7 in “Transforming Nursing Education through Problem-based Learning,” R. Rideout, ed., Jones and Barlett Publishers, Sudbury, MA, 2001 (122) Sockalingam, N., “Characteristics of Problems in Problem-based Learning,” PhD Thesis, ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Erasmus University of Rotterdam, 2010 (123) Hmelo-Silver, Cindy E. and Howard S. Barrows, “Goals and Strategies for a Problem-based Learning Facilitator” Int. Journal PBL 1,1, p 21-39, 2006 (124) Wong, Chron, Diploma in Chemical Engineering, Temasek Poly, Facilities and Operations Management course, 2001, p. 23 personal communication (125) Woods, D.R., “ Rules of Thumb in Engineering Practice,” John Wiley and sons, Weinheim, 2007 p 35 (126) Woods, D.R.,“Helping Students Gain the Most from Their PBL Experience,” chapter in “Management of Change: implementation of problem-based and project-based learning in engineering,” Erik de Graaff and Anette Kolmos, ed, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 181-195, 2007 (127) Woods, D.R., “Problem-based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL” 2 nd edition, Woods, available from McMaster University Bookstore, 1997 or download it free from http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/innov1.htm and click on PBL and then download Chapters B, C and D from Problem based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL. (128) Woods, D.R., "PBL for Large Classes in Chemical Engineering" in "New Directions in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education," L. Wilkerson and W. Gijselaers, ed., Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. 91-99, 1996 (129) Schmidt, H.G, Sofie M.M. Loyens, Tamara van Gog, Fred Paas,“ Problem-based Learning is Compatible with Human Cognitive Architecture: Commentary on Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006),” Educational Psychologist, 42 (2), 91-97, 2007 (130) Mantri, Archana et al.,“Integrating PBL into traditional Frame Work: turning challenges into opportunities,” ASEE conference “Global Colloquium of Engineering Education,” Oct 12 -15, Budapest, Hungary, 2009 (131) Woods, D.R., “Problem-based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL” 2 nd edition, http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/innov1.htm and click on PBL and then download Chapters B, C and D from Problem based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL. P F-45 to F-52 (132) Bowe, B., “Managing the Change from Traditional Teaching to Problem-based Learning in Physics Education,”in Management of Change: implementation of Problem-based and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Erik de Graaff and Anette Kolmos, ed, Sense Publishers, Rotterdam , 83-91, 2007 (133) Bowe, B., “Assessing Problem-based Learning: a case study of a Physics Problem-based Learning course,” Handbook of Enquiry and Problem-based Learning,” T. Barrett., I. MacLabhrainn and H. Fallon, eds.CELT, Galway, Ireland, 2005 (134) Dolmans, D.H.J.M, and LuAnn Wilerson, “Relfection on studies on the learning process in problem- based learning,” Adv. Health Sciences Education Theory Pract., 156 (4) 437-441 October (2011) (135) Green, Jenny, “PBL in nursing- Sydney University,” PROBE, Newsletter of the Australian Problem- based Learning Network, 8, July p 12, 1993 (136)(135) (133) Allen, D. And K.Tanner, “Approaches to Cell Biology Teaching: learning content in Context- Problem-based Learning,” Cell Biology Education, 2, (2) 73-81, 2003 (137) Mohd-Yusof, K et al.“Motivation and Engagement of Learning in the Cooperative Problem-based Learning (CPBL) Frame-work,” ASEE paper 2721, 2011 (138) Jamieson, L.H and J.R. Lohman, “Creating a culture for scholarly and systematic innovation in Engineering Education,” Phase 1 Report, ASEE, 2009 (139) Barr, R. et al., “Challenge-based Instruction, The VaNTH biomechanics modules,” Advances in Engineering Education, 1(1) 1-30, 2007 (140) Barrows, H.S. and R. Tamblyn, “Problem-based Learning: an approach to Medical Education,” Springer Publishing, NY, 1980 (141) Barrows, H.S. “Practice-Based Learning: problem-based learning applied to medical education, Southern Illinois University, Springfield IL, 1994 (142) Barrows, H.S., “Problem-based Learning Applied to Medical Education,” revised, Southern Illinois University, Springfield IL,Paragon 2000 Plus Environment ACS
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(143) Cleveland, G. and G. Saville, “Police PBL: Blueprint for the 21 st Century,” 2007 downloaded from the web Mar, 2011 (144) PTO Manual, A Problem-based Manual for Training and Evaluating Police Trainees,” Reno Experience. http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/RIC/Publications/pto_manual.pdf downloaded April, 2011 and Lepinski, Cokie, “Problem-based Learning: a new approach to teaching, training, and developing employees,” Marin County Sheriff’s Office, 2005 http://www.sacpd.org/RCPI/ProblemBasedLearning. accessed web July, 2011 (145) Barrows, H.S., and G.C. Pickell, “ Developing Clinical Problem-solving skills: a guide to more effective diagnosis and treatment,” Norton, New York, 1991 (146) Schmidt, H. and J. Moust, “Factors affecting small group tutorial learning: a review of research,” in Evenson, D. H. and Hmelo, C. E., Eds., Problem-Based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000 (147) Anon “PBL General Tutor Training Package, 2011-2012,” Faculty Development and Educational Support, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, www.facdev.med.ubs.ca (148) Barrows, H.S., “The Tutorial Process,” revised edition, Southern Illinois University, Springfield, IL, 1988 (149) Savin-Baden, M., “An Introduction to Problem-based Learning,” Coverntry University, undated downloaded from the web Mar, 2013 (150) Neville, A.J. and G.R. Norman, “PBL in the undergraduate MD program at McMaster University: Three Iterations in Three Decades,” Academic Medicine, 82 (4) 370-374, 2007 (151) CASper McMaster Medical School online Test for admission http://astroffconsultants.com/casper/ (152) Norman, G.R., McMaster University Medical School, personal communication, Jan., 2012 (153) Crowe, Jean, McMaster University OT-PT program, personal communication, Jan., 2012 (154) Woods, D.R., “Problem-based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL,” 2 nd edition, Woods, available from McMaster University Bookstore, 1997 or download it free from http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/innov1.htm and click on PBL and then download Chapter A from Problem based Learning: Resources to gain the most from PBL. p A21 (155) Woods, D.R., “Problem-based Learning: Helping your students gain the most from PBL,”Resources to gain the most from PBL,” 2 nd edition, Woods, available from McMaster University Bookstore, 1998 or download it free from http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/innov1.htm and click on PBL and then download Chapter 5 from Problem based Learning: Helping your students gain the most from PBL. MC, meq, triple, osce, P4 (portable patient problem pack) (156) Woods, D.R., “Preparing for PBL” Chapter 8, downloadable from the web http://www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/innov1.htm information about progress test, concept map, teach notes, triple jump Branda Critical instance cases (P4deck), OSCE, reflective journal (157) Alverno College, “Crtitical learning Incident,” Alverno College, Milwaukee, WI, undated (158) Computer Engineering, Temasek polytechnic, Singapore, “The PBL Journal,” presented at the 2 nd Asia- Pacific Conference on Problem-based Learning, Singapore, Dec 4 to 7, 2000 (159) Lanzing, Jan. “Concept mapping Homepage,” http://www.to.utwente.nl/user/ism/lanzig/cm_home.htm. (160) Halpern, D., “Thought and Knowledge, an introduction to critical thinking,” 3 rd ed., Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996 (161) Rangachari, P.K., “The TRIPSE: A process-centred Evaluation exercise for undergraduate problem-based courses in Pharmacology,” http://www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/pbls/tripse
1 Some would replace the word “Problem” with the word challenge, case, project, experience, puzzle, game, consulting, scenario, or product.
2 Options 29 to 33 require Departmental or Program approval since they require integration of subject areas.
3The descriptions of the variations are based on my interpretation of the published article. The current approach may be different. ACS Paragon Plus Environment
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Figure 1: Activities and responsibilities in learning Activity:
Teacher
Shared
Student
1. Pick problem 2. Identify learning issues 3. Set learning goals/criteria 4. Plan and use a strategy 5. Pick resources from which to learn 6. Lecture to others 7. Learn
X
8. Solve the problem
X
9. Create the assessment 10. Do the assessment 11. Embed the new knowledge in previous knowledge by elaboration
?
12. Reflect on the process
?
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Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
Pose problem Primarily knowledge acquisition LO
SG
Individual
1
2
Tutor
Primarily skill acquisition 7 8 Generic Professional CT, PS, clinic SG, SA, design SDL detective
both
3
4
5
6
9
tutor
tutor
Have LO 28 ...................................................................................................................................................... Learn project 27 10
13
14
15
Coop SG Tutor 11 12 lecture 26 Script 40 synthesis ` Socratic 60 SDL pretrain 41 min individual 48 50 42
43
SG tutor critique
20 min 61
62
SG diad
triad 23
24
script
31 52 47
64
25
22
work Shop
51
scaffold
53 54
SG
55
SG SG 1 tutor tutor circulates critique teach 1 tutor others 100 63
21
tutor
16
SG no tutor
60
SDL
admit
combo
46
20 29
without
44 45
60 min
19
no
65
66
67
30 Script
tutor
17
18
SG tutor tutor guides circulates
1 tutor 10 SG 68
1-on-1 71
72
17
69
23 70 24
...............................................................................................................................................................................
Assess
Written Questions
Oral
Diagrams Simulations fishbone argument P4 concept symptom tutorial problems map cause patient cause computer effect Oral Interrupted protocol speech OSCE Tripse interview Triple Journals Forms highlighters prompted learning activity assess PBL 4 client free write assessment self peer tutor
fill in blank MEQ precis critique MC essay Problems Progress create by students tutor Reports essay
progress design lit. used
research
homework
student work summary teach notes
day book
reflections
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Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
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Definitions of terms. LO = learning objectives, CT critical thinking, PS problem solving, SA self assessment, SDL self directed learning, SG small group, MC multiple choice, MEQ modified essay question, OSCE Objective structured clinical examination (practical MEQ) series of 3 timed stations. Triple Jump (identify issues, SDL, test); Tripse (triple jump with data); P4 Portable patient problem pack; PBL 4; tabular list statement or hypothesis/ facts/ learning objectives/ actions ____________________________________________________________
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