Article pubs.acs.org/JPCC
Superstructures of Diketopyrrolopyrrole Donors and Perylenediimide Acceptors Formed by Hydrogen-Bonding and π···π Stacking Stephen Rieth,†,⊥ Zhong Li,†,⊥ Charlotte E. Hinkle,† Carmen X. Guzman,‡ Jungeun J. Lee,† Samer I. Nehme,† and Adam B. Braunschweig*,‡ †
Department of Chemistry and Molecular Design Institute, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33146, United States
‡
S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: Synthetic supramolecular systems can provide insight into how complex biological systems organize as well as produce self-organized systems with functionality comparable to their biological counterparts. Herein, we study the assembly into superstructures of a system composed of diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) donors with chiral and achiral side chains that can form triple hydrogen bonds with perylene diimide (PDI) acceptors into superstructures. The homoaggregation of the individual components as well as the heteroaggregate formation, as a result of π···π stacking and H-bonding, were studied by variable-temperature UV/vis and CD spectroscopies and electronic structure theory calculations. It was found that, upon cooling, the achiral PDIs bind to disordered DPP stacks, which drives the formation of chiral superstructures. A new thermodynamic model was developed for this unprecedented assembly that is able to isolate the thermodynamic binding parameters (ΔH°, ΔS°) for all the different noncovalent contacts that drive the assembly. This novel assembly as well as the quantitative model described in this work may help researchers develop complex self-assembled systems with emergent properties that arise as a direct result of their supramolecular structures.
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INTRODUCTION Small molecules that self-assemble into well-ordered hierarchical superstructures as a result of multiple noncovalent interactions direct the most complex tasks in biology, and supramolecular chemists seek to emulate this design approach to create synthetic systems with comparable functionality.1 To organize chromophores into superstructures, which could be used to probe fundamental aspects of charge generation in organic systems as well as understand assembly in complex supramolecular systems,2 hydrogen-bonding (H-bonding) and π···π interactions are commonly combined.3 Often, these chromophores display unique spectroscopic signatures corresponding to aggregated states that can be used to track assembly. Examples include homoaggregates of oligo(p-phenylenevinylenes) (OPVs)3b,d,h,l,q or substituted perylenediimides (PDI),3j,n,o where H-bonding precedes π-aggregate formation, and heteroaggregates such as a system consisting of either melamine or OPVs whose H-bonding with PDIs initiates the assembly of π-stacked superstructures.3a,c,e,f,i,p Models that describe homoaggregation of a monomer into a supramolecular polymer provide association constants (Ka’s), thermodynamic parameters (ΔH° and ΔS°), and degrees of polymerization.4 Alternatively, models that consider two or more noncovalent interactions are rare, and most simplify their description of assembly by considering only a single interaction.5 This failure to account for different supramolecular © XXXX American Chemical Society
recognition events working in concert limits the ability of scientists to create systems with the functional complexity comparable to natural hierarchical structures, in particular when different components come together to form heteroaggregates. To address this challenge, we studied the aggregation of chiral and achiral diketopyrrolopyrrole-based (DPP) donors with a 1,7-substituted PDI acceptor (Figure 1A). Upon mixing in solution, the PDI and DPPs assemble into well-ordered superstructures (Figure 1C) because of (1) complementary triple H-bonds along one spatial axis (x), (2) large aromatic surfaces that drive aggregation via π···π stacking along an orthogonal axis (z), and (3) solubilizing alkyl chains appended to each aromatic core that can interact along the third orthogonal axis (y) (Figure 1B). Chiral side chains have been introduced onto the DPP donor 1 so that distinct Cotton effects arising as a result of the formation of chiral superstructures can provide additional information on the emergence of order.6 Variable-temperature (VT) UV/vis and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopic measurements revealed that the PDIs associate to disordered DPP aggregates, which subsequently reorganize into helical heteroaggregates of a single chirality. A new thermodynamic model was developed that Received: January 27, 2013 Revised: April 30, 2013
A
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THEORETICAL Electronic Structure Theory Calculations. DFT Calculations of geometries, energies, and structural properties were performed with Gaussian 09, Revision B.01.7 Donor and acceptor geometries were optimized using Becke’s threeparameter exchange functional8 combined with the Lee− Yang−Parr correlation functional9 (B3LYP), and the 631G(d,p) basis set10 on an ultrafine grid using tight convergence criteria. Minimization of structure was confirmed via frequency calculations, and all were found to be minimum energy structures. Enthalpies of H-bonding and π···π stacking were calculated from converged fragments at the B3LYP/631G(d,p) level of theory with identical grid and convergence criteria. The carbon lengths of the alkyl chains within 1 and 3 were reduced to one or two to increase the speed of the calculations. Aggregate Modeling. Changes in the UV/vis or CD spectra of DPPs, PDIs, or mixtures thereof were induced by changing the sample temperature or concentration. This is the result of the formation or disassembly of aggregates of varying size composed of DPPs and/or PDIs in differing local environments with differing propensity to absorb light at various wavelengths. Accordingly, equilibrium constants, Ka’s, can be quantified by first defining a model that includes the appropriate set of equilibria, calculating the hypothetical concentrations of equilibrium species at each temperature or concentration, and finally fitting the resulting data to the spectra and their changes. Fittings were conducted in Microsoft Excel 2010 using the Evolutionary Solving method within the Solver feature by minimizing the total sum of squared residuals (SSR, eq 1), where wi are the weights assigned to each absorbance. SSR =
Figure 1. (A) DPP donor (red) and PDI acceptor (blue) molecules 1−3 are capable of (B) heteroaggregation through a combination of H-bonding and π···π stacking, resulting in (C) well-ordered superstructures.
i
(1)
When appropriate, two or more experiments (e.g., VT UV/ vis and CD) are fit simultaneously to the same enthalpy/ entropy parameters to minimize the resulting error. Aggregation of 1 into Homoaggregates (Isodesmic Model). To model the homoaggregation of 1, we assume a two-state system, where the fully monomeric 1 and fully aggregated 1 each have a unique temperature-independent extinction coefficient. The observed absorbance changes in a VT UV/vis experiment were found to fit well to the simplest infinite association model, the isodesmic model, which assumes the association by π···π stacking between aromatic moieties are equivalent regardless of length of the stack:
quantifies the binding parameters (ΔH° and ΔS°) associated with each interaction (H-bonding and π···π stacking) and, with the aid of electronic structure theory calculations, elucidates the subtle supramolecular cues that induce the transition from disordered aggregates into well-defined helices.
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∑ wi(Aiexp − Aicalc)2
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
The synthesis of the DPPs and PDI is described in detail in the Supporting Information [SI]. The UV/vis measurements were performed on an Agilent 8453 spectrophotometer equipped with a temperature control accessory. CD measurements were performed on an Aviv circular dichroism spectrometer, model 215. For all measurements, the temperatures were corrected using an external digital thermometer with a microprobe accessory. Quartz cuvettes with 1-cm path lengths were used. All samples were prepared with dried solvents in volumetric glassware and were heated within the cell holder at the highest measured temperature (e.g., 50 or 90 °C) for 30 min prior to cooling/measurement to ensure deaggregation. For each VT experiment, spectra were obtained at increments of 1 or 2 °C with a 10-min equilibration time between each measurement.
K=
[(DPP)n + 1] [(DPP)n ][DPP]
(2)
A commonly overlooked aspect is that the value of Ka derived from the fitting process is typically a macroscopic Ka that does not take into account that there are two faces to which each 1 molecule can associate. While a technicality in terms of reporting Ka’s within the literature, it is of crucial importance when comparing the experimentally derived thermodynamic parameters to those obtained via computational chemistry, which describe the microscopic association process. Assuming the H-bonding moieties of 1 do not participate in π···π stacking, there are four identical pathways by which two DPP molecules can preferentially associate, the microscopic association constant, K1, can be defined as: B
dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp400918z | J. Phys. Chem. C XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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[(DPP)n + 1] [(DPP)n ][DPP]
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Ka describing this event is 2nK2. K3 describes the binding strength of additional 3 molecules to 1 stacks already containing 3 molecules and includes (1) the additional binding energy yielded as a result of π···π stacking between two PDI moieties and (2) the benefit of chelate cooperativity. Because of these additional interactions, we assume that K2 ≠ K3. For the VT experiments of a solution containing both 1 and 3 (A and B of Figure 3), precipitation of heteroaggregates occurred below 10 °C, which prevented the assessment of any new bands at low temperatures.
(3)
[DPP]t = [DPP] + 2[(DPP)2 ] + 3[(DPP)3 ] + 4[(DPP)4 ] + ...
(4)
It should be noted that due to the flexibility of 1, K1 itself includes all possible binding configurations between two faces of 1. This assumption is necessary as there are likely several different configurations occurring simultaneously in the experiments. Equations 3 and 4 can be combined to give:
K = 4K1 =
[DPP]t = [DPP] + 2(4K1)[DPP]2 + 3(4K1)2 [DPP]3 + 4(4K1)3 [DPP]4 + ....
(5)
Equation 5 can be re-expressed as an infinite series to give:
n=1
(6)
Given the general solution for this infinite series in eq 7, eq 6 can be rewritten as eq 8: ∞
∑ nx n− 1 = n=1
[DPP]t =
1 (1 − x)2
[(DPP)n (PDI)] [(DPP)n ][(PDI)]
(12)
K 2K3 =
[(DPP)n (PDI)m ] n≥m [(DPP)n (PDI)m − 1][(PDI)]
(13)
In eq 13, m is an arbitrary positive integer that is less than n. The components included in the mass balance equation that defines the total concentration of DPP ([DPP]t) for this particular system consist of a series of equations defined by the length of the DPP chain, n:
(7)
For [DPP]t :
[DPP] (1 − 4K1[DPP])2
(8)
n = 1 [DPP] + [(DPP)(PDI)]
Solving for [DPP] gives eq 9: [DPP] =
8K3[DPP]t + 1 −
(3)
2nK 2 =
∞
[DPP]t = [DPP] ∑ n(4K1[DPP])n − 1
[(DPP)n + 1] [(DPP)n ][DPP]
n = 2 2[DPP2] + 2[(DPP)2 (PDI)] + 2[(DPP)2 (PDI)2 ]
16K1[DPP]t + 1
32K12[DPP]t
(9)
n = 3 3[(DPP)3 ] + 3[(DPP)3 (PDI)] + 3[(DPP)3 (PDI)2 ] + 3[(DPP)3 (PDI)3 ]
To fit the VT UV/vis spectrum, Ka’s are generated from the van’t Hoff equation (eq 10) and are then used to calculate the hypothetical absorbance at each temperature (eq 11). The theoretical data is then fit to the experimental spectroscopic data by minimizing the SSR (eq 1) using the themodynamic parameters (ΔH° and ΔS°) and the extinction coefficients as fitting parameters.
↓ n=∞
Substituting in eqs 3, 12, and 13 give:
K = e−ΔH °/ RT +ΔS°/ R
(10)
For [DPP]t :
A = ([DPP]t − [DPP])εaggregate + [DPP]εmonomerr
(11)
n = 1 [DPP] + (2K 2)[DPP][PDI] n = 2 2(4K1)[DPP]2 + 2(4K1)(4K 2)[DPP]2 [PDI] + 2(4K1)(4K 2)(K 2K3)[DPP]2 [PDI]2
Assembly of 1 and 3 into Heteroaggregates. Because the ratio of 1:3 in solution (2:1) and the higher number of Hbonds resulting from complementary imides and diamidopyridines, we assume homoaggregation of 3 does not occur to an appreciable extent under the experimental conditions because 3 will preferentially form heteroaggregates, and homoaggregation is thus not included in our model. This assumption is fully supported by UV/vis and CD evidence in Figure 3. Since strong homoaggregation of 3 occurs without a resulting signal in the CD spectra, our model presumes the 1 molecules are present in a broad distribution of chain lengths as a result of isodesmic stacking as dictated by a macroscopic Ka (4K1) determined previously. The binding of 3 to each of these stacks can be described by two Ka’s: K2 and K3. The former describes the strength of association of one 3 molecule to a 1 stack of any length that does not already contain 3. As there are two points by which H-bonding takes place in 3 and n points on a stack of 1 (where n denotes the number of residues), the macroscopic
n = 3 3(4K1)2 [DPP]3 + 3(4K1)2 (6K 2)[DPP]3 [PDI] + 3(4K1)2 (6K 2)(K 2K3)[DPP]3 [PDI]2 + 3(4K1)2 (6K 2)(K 2K3)2 [DPP]3 [PDI]3 ↓ n=∞
From the equations above, the mass balance equation can be rewritten as: C
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∞
For [DPP]t :
[DPP]t = [DPP] ∑ ((n(4K1[DPP])n − 1)
n = 1 (2K 2)[DPP][PDI]
n=1 n−1
(1 + 2nK 2[PDI] ∑ (K 2K3[PDI])i )) i=0
n = 2 (4K1)(4K 2)[DPP]2 [PDI] + 2(4K1)(4K 2)(K 2K3)[DPP]2 [PDI]2
(14)
n = 3 (4K1)2 (6K 2)[DPP]3 [PDI] + 2(4K1)2 (6K 2)(K 2K3)2 [DPP]3 [PDI]2 + 3(4K1)2 (6K 2)(K 2K3)2 [DPP]3 [PDI]3
Using relationship 15, eq 14 can be rewritten as eq 16. n−1
∑ xi = i=0
1 − xn 1−x
(15)
↓ n=∞
⎛ [DPP]t = [DPP] ∑ ⎜⎜(n(4K1[DPP])n − 1) n=1 ⎝ ∞
From the equations above, the mass balance equation can be rewritten as:
⎛ 2nK 2[PDI] − 2nK 2n + 1K3n[PDI ]n + 1 ⎞⎞ ⎜1 + ⎟⎟⎟ 1 − K 2K3[PDI ] ⎝ ⎠⎠
[PDI]t = [PDI] + 2K 2[PDI][DPP] n−1
∑ ((n(4K1[DPP])
(16)
∞
n=1 ∞
∑ n2(4K1[DPP])n− 1 n=1 ∞
∞
∑ n 2x n − 1 = n=1
1+x (1 − x)3
0 = −[DPP]t +
(20) n−1
∑ (i + 1)x i = i=0
2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP] − 1 − K 2K3[PDI]
n=1
+ −
2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP] + 8K1K 23K32[PDI]3 [DPP]2
1 − (n + 1)x n + nx n + 1 (1 − x)2
[PDI]t = [PDI] +
(21)
2K 2[PDI][DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2
∞
∑ ((n(4K1[DPP])n− 1)(1 − (n + 1)(K 2K3[PDI])n
(17)
n=1
+ n(K 2K3[PDI])n + 1))
(22)
Expanding eq 22 gives eq 23, which can be rearranged to give eq 24 .
(18)
[DPP] (1 − 4K1[DPP])2
2K 2[PDI][DPP] + 8K1K 2[PDI][DPP]2
i=0
Using relationship 21, eq 20 can be rewritten as eq 22.
2K 2[PDI][DPP] 1 − K 2K3[PDI]
∑ n2(4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])n− 1
)(∑ ((i + 1)(K 2K3[PDI])i ))
n=1
Expanding eq 16 gives eq 17, which can be solved using eqs 7 and eq 18 to give eq 19. [DPP]t = [DPP] ∑ n(4K1[DPP])n − 1 +
n−1
∞
[PDI]t = [PDI] +
2K 2[PDI][DPP] (1‐K 2K3[PDI])2
∞
∑ (n(4K1[DPP])n− 1 − n2(4K1[DPP])n− 1
(1 − K 2K3[PDI])(1 − 4K1[DPP])3
n=1
(K 2K3[PDI])n − n(4K1[DPP])n − 1(K 2K3[PDI])n
(1 − K 2K3[PDI])(1 − 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])3
+ n2(4K1[DPP])n − 1(K 2K3[PDI])n + 1)
(19)
For [DPP]t :
[PDI]t = [PDI] +
n = 1 [(DPP)(PDI)]
(23)
2K 2[PDI][DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2
∞
∑ (n(4K1[DPP])n− 1(K 22K32[PDI]2
n = 2 [(DPP)2 (PDI)] + 2[(DPP)2 (PDI)2 ]
n=1
n = 3 [(DPP)3 (PDI)] + 2[(DPP)3 (PDI)2 ] + 3[(DPP)3 (PDI)3 ]
− K 2K3[PDI])n2(4K1K 2K3[DPP][PDI])n − 1 − (K 2K3[PDI])n(4K1K 2K3[DPP][PDI])n − 1)
↓ n=∞
(24)
Equation 24 can be further expanded to give eq 25, which can be solved using eqs 7 and 18 to give eq 26.
Substituting in eqs 3, 12, and 13 gives:
D
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[PDI]t = [PDI] +
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2K 2[PDI][DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2
∞
∑ n2(4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])n− 1 − n=1
0 = − [PDI]t + [PDI] + +
∞
2K 23K32[PDI]3 [DPP] − 2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP]
∑ n(4K1[DPP])n− 1 +
(1 − K 2K3[PDI])2
n=1
2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2
∞
∑ n(4K1K 2K3[DPP][PDI])n− 1 n=1
(25)
2K 2[PDI][DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2 (1 − 4K1[DPP])2
(2K 23K32[PDI]3 [DPP] − 2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP])(1 + 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP]) (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2 (1 − 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])3
−
2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2 (1 − 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])2
(26)
Equations 19 and 26 can be expressed as two multivariable functions, 27 and 28: f ([PDI], [DPP]) = − [DPP]t + −
2K 2[PDI][DPP] + 8K1K 2[PDI][DPP]2 [DPP] + (1 − 4K1[DPP])2 (1 − K 2K3[PDI])(1 − 4K1[DPP])3
2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP] + 8K1K 23K32[PDI]3 [DPP]2 (1 − K 2K3[PDI])(1 − 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])3
g ([PDI],[DPP]) = −[PDI]t + [PDI] + + −
2K 2[PDI][DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2 (1 − 4K1[DPP])2
(2K 23K32[PDI]3 [DPP] − 2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP])(1 + 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP]) (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2 (1 − 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])3 2K 22K3[PDI]2 [DPP] (1 − K 2K3[PDI])2 (1 − 4K1K 2K3[PDI][DPP])2
Thus, at any given value of K1, K2, K3, [DPP]t, and [PDI]t, eqs 27 and 28 can be iteratively converged unto f([PDI], [DPP]) = g([PDI],[DPP]) = 0, giving [PDI] and [DPP]. Accordingly, Newton’s Method was implemented in Microsoft Excel with each two columns corresponding to an iteration: [DPP]n + 1 = [DPP]n −
f ([PDI]n ,[DPP]n ) ∂ f ([PDI]n ,[DPP]n ) ∂[DPP]n
[PDI]n + 1 = [PDI]n −
g ([PDI]n ,[DPP]n + 1 ) ∂ g ([PDI]n ,[DPP]n + 1 ) ∂[PDI]n
[DPP]n + 2 = [DPP]n + 1 −
[PDI]n + 2 = [PDI]n + 1 −
(27)
(28)
each residue exhibiting a temperature-independent extinction coefficient (ε2). All molecules of 3 in any other state, including monomers and heteroaggregates with only one molecule of 3, exhibit a different extinction coefficient (ε1), which is equivalent to the initial absorbance observed at 615 nm prior to the onset of heteroaggregation. All heteroaggregates with one molecule of 3 can be expressed by eq 29, which can be solved using eq 7 to yield eq 30: ∞
∑ [(DPP)n (PDI)]
f ([PDI]n + 1 ,[DPP]n + 1 ) ∂ f ([PDI]n + 1 ,[DPP]n + 1 ) ∂[DPP]n + 1
n=1 ∞
= 2K 2[DPP][PDI] ∑ n(4K1[DPP])n − 1 n=1
g ([PDI]n + 1 ,[DPP]n + 2 ) ∂ g ([PDI]n + 1 ,[DPP]n + 2 ) ∂[PDI]n + 1
∞
∑ [(DPP)n (PDI)] =
and so forth until convergence is obtained. To calculate the theoretical UV/vis and CD data for the fitting, we assume any two or more molecules of 3 in the π···π stacks will contribute to the absorbance band at 615 nm with
n=1
(29)
2K 2[DPP][PDI] (1 − 4K1[DPP])2
(30)
From the Beer−Lambert Law, the theoretical absorbance can then be calculated as: E
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⎛ 2K 2[DPP][PDI] ⎞ ⎟ε1 A = ⎜[PDI] + (1 − 4K1[DPP])2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎛ 2K 2[DPP][PDI] ⎞ ⎟ε2 + ⎜[PDI]t − [PDI] − (1 − 4K1[DPP])2 ⎠ ⎝
effects of each individual interaction contribute to the formation of the resulting superstructure. Initially, the homoaggregation of 1 and 3 were analyzed independently by UV/vis spectroscopy to understand the role homoaggregation plays in the formation and structure of heteroaggregates. The UV/vis spectrum of 1 in toluene displays absorption maxima at 538 and 580 nm at 25 °C, which are the result of dipole allowed S0 − S1 electronic transitions.12 Upon cooling, these bands undergo bathochromic shifts with increasing sharpness, which are spectral signatures of J-type aggregation (Figure 2A).
(31)
Since the transition temperaturethat is the temperature in which the bands corresponding to an intermolecular electronic transition between molecules of 3 arisefor the CD spectrum is significantly less than the transition observed by UV/vis, we assume that monomers and heteroaggregates containing either one or two molecules of 3 yield no signal. That is, at the very minimum, three molecules of 3 need to be π···π stacked to obtain an ordered aggregate. The total concentration of all aggregates containing two bound PDI molecules can be expressed as: ∞
∑ [(DPP)n (PDI)2 ] n=1
= 2(4K1)(2K 2)(K 2K3)[DPP]2 [PDI]2 ∞
∑ (n + 1)(4K1K 2K3[DPP])n− 1 n=1
(32)
Equation 32 can be solved with eq 33 to give eq 34: ∞
∑ (n + 1)x n− 1 = n=1
2−x (1 − x)2
(33)
∞
∑ [(DPP)n (PDI)2 ] n=1
=
32K1K 22K3[DPP]2 [PDI]2 − 64K12K 23K32[DPP]3 [PDI]2
Figure 2. (A) VT UV/vis spectra of a 20 μM solution of 1 in toluene. (B) The absorption peak at 540 nm in the VT UV/vis of 1 fit to an isodesmic model. (C) Top and side view of a DFT structure of a π···π stacked DPP dimer. (D) VT UV/vis spectra of a 35 μM solution of 3 in toluene. (E) The absorption peak at 592 nm in the VT UV/vis of 3. (F) Top and side view of a DFT structure of a π···π stacked PDI dimer. Dashed lines are run along the N−N′ axis, and are shown to indicate the twist angle, φ, between the stacked PDIs.
(1 − 4K1K 2K3[DPP])2 (34)
Thus, the CD signal can be calculated as: ⎛ 2K 2[DPP][PDI] CD = ⎜[PDI ]t − [PDI ] − (1 − 4K1[DPP])2 ⎝ −
32K1K 22K3[DPP]2 [PDI]2 − 64K12K 23K32[DPP]3 [PDI]2 ⎞ ⎟X (1 − 4K1K 2K3[DPP])2 ⎠
(35)
Although π-stacked chromophores with chiral side chains often form chiral superstructures,6 the absorbance intensities of 1 exhibit a sigmoidal dependence with temperature and no signal was observed in VT CD experiments.11 These observations are characteristic of isodesmic stacking, where the Ka describing the π···π stacking is constant regardless of aggregate size.13 By fitting the changes in absorbance of 1 with changes in temperature to an isodesmic model,4c an excellent fit was obtained to provide ΔH° and ΔS° values of −7.4 ± 0.5 kcal mol−1 and −3.0 ± 2.0 eu, respectively, indicating the π···π stacking is enthalpically driven (Figure 2B). DFT calculations (B3LYP/6-31G(d,p)) on homoaggregates of a DPP that has methyl side chains to simplify the calculation revealed a slipstacked binding geometry with thiophenes overlapping the DPP cores (C and D of Figure 2). This calculated structure is consistent with the UV/vis data and a similar slip-stacked geometry observed previously in an X-ray crystal structure of DPP−thiophene oligomers.14 The energy of binding, ΔE = −10.5 kcal mol−1, from the DFT calculations agrees well with the ΔH° derived from the fitting.
where X is a proportionality constant. To fit the VT UV/vis and CD spectra, Ka’s are generated from the van’t Hoff equation (eq 10) and are then used to calculate the hypothetical absorbance and CD at each temperature (eqs 31 and 35). The theoretical data is then fitted to the experimental UV/vis and CD data simultaneously by minimizing the SSR (eq 1) using the thermodynamic parameters (ΔH° and ΔS°), the extinction coefficients, and CD proportionality constant as fitting parameters.
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RESULTS DPP donors 1 and 2 have diamidopyridine (DAP) groups, which can form triple H-bonds with the diimide groups of PDI acceptor 3 (Figure 1A). The donors differ only by their N-alkyl chains: 1 possesses homochiral (S)-2-methylbutyl side chains, and 2 has racemic 2-ethyloctyl chains.11 Like complex biological systems, these assemblies form from the combined effects of multiple noncovalent interactions working in unison, and the aim of this study is to derive models that describe how the F
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H-bonding is known to affect the supramolecular assembly of 1,7-substituted PDIs, so the homoaggregation of 3 was also investigated by VT UV/vis spectroscopy. The UV/vis spectra of 1,7-substituted PDIs typically display characteristic peaks arising from the S0 − S1 transition3e that are broadened because of twisting in the perylene ring system15 that inhibits aggregation beyond π-stacked dimers.16 Previously studied PDIs without N-substituents display a sharp peak that are assigned to the J-aggregation of π···π stacked dimers interconnected by H-bonding.17 Alternatively, mono-N-substituted PDIs possessing complementary melamine moieties Haggregate into helical superstructures as a result of intermolecular H-bonding.3j For PDI 3, the UV/vis spectra revealed a sharp absorbance maximum at 520 nm in toluene with a pronounced vibronic fine structure. Upon cooling, these peaks decrease with a concomitant increase of a broad band with a maximum at 592 nm (Figure 2E). These spectral changes are similar to non-1,7-substituted PDIs whose π···π aggregation is intermediate between J- or H-type16b as a result of rotationally displaced stacked PDIs.18 DFT calculations of a π···π stacked dimer of 3 revealed an offset, φ, of 22° between the long axes (Figure 2F), and thus, we conclude that the new absorption peak corresponds to a similar rotationally displaced stacking geometry. A plot of the absorbance at 592 nm vs temperature reveals negligible aggregation above 37 °C. Below 37 °C, the absorption increases quickly, suggesting nucleation− growth assembly13 where an initial disfavored binding event precludes association until a critical temperature is reached, after which a new thermodynamically favored equilibrium drives the assembly into π-stacked superstructures (Figure 2F).1f,3l,4b,13 Suspecting intermolecular H-bonding plays a key role in assembly, the VT UV/vis experiment was repeated with a bis-N-cyclohexyl derivative of 3 or in 3% DMSO in toluene, both of which inhibit H-bonding.11 No spectral changes that indicate π-stacking were observed in either control experiment, confirming that H-bonding promotes the π-stacking of 3. These investigations into the homoaggregation of 1 and 3 are necessary to understand how the self-assembly of the individual components contributes to the structure and assembly of the multicomponent heteroaggregate assemblies. Heteroaggregation arising from H-bonding and π···π stacking was investigated by VT UV/vis spectroscopy on a 2:1 mixture of 1 and 3, respectively, in toluene. At 40 °C, the spectrum is a linear composite of the individual spectra (Figure 3A), indicating that mixed π-heteroaggregates are not present at high temperature. Upon cooling, the absorbance maxima of 3 decrease and two new bands arise at 563 and 615 nm, which are assigned to a S0 − S1 transition from the π···π stacking of 3. Several aspects of the spectrum indicate heteroaggregate formation: (1) the absorbance at 615 nm begins to increase in the mixture at 21 °C, which is a much lower temperature than was observed for the onset of homoaggregation of 3 (39 °C); (2) the new bands at 563 and 615 nm are much sharper than the broad peaks formed by homoaggregates of 3, suggesting J-type aggregation, meaning the π-stacked PDIs adopt a different geometry in the heteroaggregates; and (3) the change in the absorption at 615 nm for the mixture of 1 and 3 is more gradual (Figure 3C) than for the homoaggregates of 3, suggesting that homoaggregation pathways are suppressed and a different assembly mechanism is operating that is driven by the triple H-bonding between 1 and 3. Prior to the appearance of the PDI π-stacking bands at 563 and 615 nm, the transitions previously assigned to π-stacking of
Figure 3. (A) VT UV/vis and (B) CD spectra of a 70 μM solution of 1 in toluene with 0.5 mol equiv of 3. (C) The absorbance (◇) and ellipticity (△) at 615 nm obtained by VT UV/vis and CD respectively fit to a cooperative helix formation model.11 (D) Top and side view of the DFT structure of the H-bonded and π···π stacked 1:3 dimer. Dashed lines are run along the N−N′ axis, and are shown to indicate the twist angle, φ, between the stacked PDIs.
1 (538 and 580 nm) increase steadily with decreasing temperature, suggesting extensive homoaggregation of 1 precedes heteroaggregate formation. A bisignated Cotton effect, with peaks at 563 and 615 nm, matching the π-stacking peaks of the achiral PDI, appeared in the VT CD spectra. The bisignated effect is a consequence of electronic coupling between conjugated segments in a helical array (Figure 3B).19 Notably, the transition temperature in the VT CD spectrum of the heteroaggregates is 5° lower than in the UV/vis measurements, suggesting that only after the association of several molecules of 3 onto disordered aggregates of 1 does the rearrangement into chiral heteroaggregate helices occur (Figure 3C), and the emergent chirality in these superstructures is the direct result of the PDI solubilizing chains interacting along the y-axis. The VT UV/vis experiments were repeated in a mixture of 2 and 3 (Figure S5 in SI), and while the same trends were observed in the VT UV/vis spectra, no Cotton effect arose in the CD spectra of 2 and 3.11 The structure of the heteroaggregate of 1 and 3 was modeled by DFT calculations using methyl and ethyl solubilizing chains on DPP and PDI, respectively. While the relative orientations of the DPPs in the heteroaggregates remain relatively unchanged compared to those in the homoaggregates, the π-offset, φ, between PDIs in the heteroaggregates (11°, Figure 3D) changed significantly compared to PDIs in the homoaggregates (22°), indicating that the preferred conformation of the DPPs dictates the π···π stacking angle in the heteroaggregate superstructure. The assessment of PDI J-aggregation from the VT UV/vis spectrum of the heteroaggregate is supported by the head-to-tail arrangement of the PDIs in the calculated structure (Figure 3D).20 These observations suggest that a new assembly mechanism that has not been described previously in supramolecular systems is directing the formation of these hierarchical donor−acceptor structures. The spectroscopic data were used to derive a new quantitative assembly model that describes formation of heteroaggregates that arise from both H-bonding and π···π stacking. The corresponding thermodynamic parameters for G
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enthalpy associated with π-aggregation overcomes the disfavorable entropy below room temperature, which drives heterosuperstructure formation upon cooling.
each interaction were obtained by fitting the changes in absorption with temperature to this model. There exist few quantitative models that describe the formation of heteroaggregates that employ multiple orthogonal interactions.4 The data indicate that PDIs bind to disordered stacks of DPPs to produce chiral superstructures (Figure 4), which leaves an
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CONCLUSIONS The self-assembly of heteroaggregates composed of πconjugated donors and acceptors could lead to synthetic hierarchical structures with functional complexity comparable to their biological counterparts, but models are needed that can describe the complex milieu of interactions involved in superstructure formation. By studying the heteroaggregation of a DPP donor and PDI acceptor, a new model was developed that elucidates the subtle structural cues that induce the transition from a disordered aggregate into a chiral helix. Using this new model, all thermodynamic parameters were quantitatively determined, and both H-bonding and the subsequent helix formation process were found to be enthalpically favored but entropically disfavored. This new model could be used to create ordered superstructures of donors and acceptors, which are increasingly investigated in the context of photovoltaics and for understanding fundamental aspects of charge and energy transport in self-assembled systems.2,3 It should be noted that, like the system described herein, natural self-assembled systems utilize multiple orthogonal noncovalent interactions that work in unison to form functional hierarchical nanostructures, thereby achieving “complexity out of simplicity”, which remains an elusive goal for chemists.22
Figure 4. The proposed model for the heteroaggregation of the DPPs (red tiles) and PDIs (blue tiles) into chiral assemblies.
available H-bonding site on each PDI that can potentially be occupied by an additional DPP at higher concentrations. In the model (Figure 4), disordered homoaggregates of 1 assemble isodesmically according to the microscopic binding constant K1. Since there are four identical pathways by which this process can occur, K1 is one-fourth the experimentally observed macroscopic Ka. The initial association event of one molecule of 3 to a stack of 1 of any size is governed by microscopic association constant K2 (Figure 4). As there are two positions where H-bonding takes place in 3 and n points on a stack of 1, where n denotes the number of residues, the macroscopic Ka is 2nK2. Further association of 3 to the stacks are described by K2 and K3, where K3 is a dimensionless Ka that includes the energy contributions from π···π stacking and any chelate cooperativity effects21 (Figure 4) associated with the aggregation of 3 within the 1 stacks. The resulting mass balance equations can be written as infinite series that describe the total concentration of each species, [PDI]t and [DPP]t, as a function of n (eqs 14 and 20). Equations 14 and 20 are both convergent and can be solved to obtain [PDI] and [DPP] for any value of K1, K2, K3, [PDI]t, and [DPP]t.11 ΔH° and ΔS° corresponding to K1 were fixed to the values previously obtained by studying the homoaggregation of 1 and held invariant. This new model can be used to make predictions about the assembly of hierarchical systems that form as a result of multiple orthogonal interactions, in particular when some of these interactions only arise in the heteroaggregatea hallmark of complexity in biological assemblyand thus cannot be measured by studying the individual components. When both VT UV/vis and CD measurements were simultaneously fit to the same parameter set, the ΔH° and ΔS° for K2 (−24.1 ± 0.1 kcal mol−1 and −70 ± 2 eu) and K3 (−13.5 ± 0.1 kcal mol−1 and −40 ± 1 eu) were obtained. These numbers compare well to the values of ΔE of −17.8 kcal mol−1 and −6.3 kcal mol−1, respectively, found by electronic structure theory calculations, although the calculations may underestimate the enthalpy by not accounting fully for cooperative stabilization. These thermodynamic parameters indicate that K2 is enthalpically driven, which is typical for Hbonded dimers. Interestingly, K3 is also enthalpically driven, but an entropic penalty is associated with the rearrangement of 3 into J-aggregates, presumably because the contorted perylene rings disfavor this stacking geometry. Nevertheless, the
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
Complete syntheses of all molecules with NMR peak assignments, additional UV/vis and CD spectra, and additional DFT calculations and related .mol files. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. Author Contributions ⊥
S.R. and Z.L. contributed equally to this paper.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was financially supported with funds obtained from the Army Research Office under W911NF-12-1-0125. A.B.B. is grateful to the Army Research Office (W911NF-12-1-0125) for generous support. We thank the NYU Molecular Design Institute for purchasing the Bruker SMART APEXII diffractometer, and Dr. Chunhua Hu for his help with the data collection and structure determination.
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