teachers notes - Hall for Cornwall

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TEACHERS NOTES

SCENE 1. INTRO

SCENE 2. METHANE BUBBLES

NATIONAL CURRICULUM P energy changes and transfers P motion and forces

NATIONAL CURRICULUM P energy transfer C chemical reactions- combustion C energetics- exothermic reactions

In this scene we take a look at Methane and how it was discovered by Alessandro Volta in the marshes of Lake Maggiore in November 1776. Methane bubbles are created and ignited creating a large flame on stage. This is then linked back to the different types of energy and explained accordingly.

Our presenters burst onto stage introducing themselves as members of the Ministry of Science. Their mission today is to look at the different types of energy and how it’s used in the modern world. They’ll also be looking at some of the different scientists, inventors and engineers who have helped shape the modern world we live in. The presenters run through the different types of energy using on screen content as a guide and encourage audience participation as they also give each type a simple definition of explanation. They’ll also look at how Issac Newton figured out how Gravity works within this scene. A simple experiment is then done using a basketball and tennis ball to show how energy can be passed from one item to another.

NAME

OLTA

OV ALESSANDR

TON

NEW R ISSAC

NAME

SI

THE SCIENCE By placing a tennis ball on top of a basketball we’ll

MER

TRONO

AND AS ATION TICIAN A M OCCUP E H T IST, MA SCIENT BORN 43 IN RY 4, 16 JANUA

LAND

PE, ENG

THOR WOOLS

LAND

N, ENG

DO DIED IN LON 31, 1727 MARCH

OR F MOT NOW F AWS O BEST K HREE L T E H T N G DEFININ L GRAVITATIO SA R E IV N U

D ION AN

transfer the kinetic energy inside the basketball into the tennis ball and it will bounce up much higher than expected. All you need to do is simply put the small ball on top of the bigger ball and drop them. Watch how the basketball dies and transfers all of it’s kinetic energy into the smaller ball explaining both Potential energy and Kinetic energy.

MER N D ASTRONO OCCUPATIO ATICIAN, AN EM TH A M , SCIENTIST

THE SCIENCE Alessandro Volta was inspired to search for

Methane after reading a paper written by Benjamin Franklin about flammable air. Volta captured the gas rising from the marsh. By 1778 he demonstrated the means to ignite the gas with an electric spark. Within this scene Methane bubbles are created and ignited on stage. As Methane is lighter than air when it is mixed with the soapy water the bubbles start to rise. The fireball that is created on stage is made when all three things from the fire triangle (Which is explained later in the show) are in place. By igniting the bubbles we demonstrate both heat and light energy.

BORN OMO, ITAL 18 1745 IN C FEBRUARY DIED , ITALY 27 IN COMO MARCH 5 18 FOR Y AND AS BEST KNOW ICAL BATTER TR EC EL E TH INVENTING HANE ERER OF MET THE DISCOV

KEY QUESTION.

Is Methane flammable?

SCENE 3. HUMAN CANNON NATIONAL CURRICULUM P motion and forces ONG

MSTR R A L I E N

NAME

Looking at man’s first mission to the moon and the developments in space travel from the initial engineering of the rocket to Virgin Galactic.

SCENE 4. ELECTRICITY NATIONAL CURRICULUM P particle model

separation of positive or negative charges when objects are rubbed together: transfer of electrons, forces between charged objects the idea of electric field, forces acting across the space between objects not in contact

It’s time to bring up some volunteers for a hair raising “dance off” followed by a look at the difference between Current and Static Electricity using a Plasma ball and a high voltage Van De Graaff machine.

A conversation between the presenter on stage and “command” (the voiceover from above) takes the audience through what you need to achieve to get into space, from the speed you need to take off to the different types of fuels that a space shuttle would use. A brief look at Virgin Galactic is shown on screen before a light hearted scene is then created whereby a human cannon is built on stage. A presenter is loaded into the cannon whilst onstage and using “theatrical magic” is then fired across the stage.

NAME

TION OCCUPA AUT N ASTRO

NIKOLA T

ESLA

HIO

NETA, O

AKO BORN IN WAP 5, 1930 T S U G AU

HIO

NATI, O

IN DIED IN CINC 25, 2012 T S U G U A

R MOON OWN FO ON THE BEST KN W O ALK T N A M FIRST

THE SCIENCE Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo will carry six passengers up past 328,000 feet altitude (100 kilometers), the

point where astronaut wings are awarded. The new craft is launched from an airplane, fires a rocket to gain altitude, then re-enters the atmosphere and glides to a landing. SpaceShipTwo has a crew of two and carries six passengers. The vehicle is air-launched from its WhiteKnightTwo carrier plane at 50,000 feet altitude (15.5 kilometers). After separating, SpaceShipTwo fires its rocket engine for 70 seconds to accelerate to 2,500 mph. The booster rocket shuts down and the craft coasts higher. Passing 328,000 feet, the passengers cross the Karman Line where fliers are considered astronauts. The craft reaches its highest altitude, 361,000 feet. Passengers experience five minutes of weightlessness. SpaceShipTwo’s rudders are configured in “feathered” mode for re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere to increase drag and reduce heating from friction. At 70,000 feet the rudders are de-feathered into gliding configuration. Landing gear and skid are deployed for landing on a conventional runway. The second SpaceShipTwo is currently in construction at the moment.

KEY QUESTION.

How fast do you need to go to get into space?

THE SCIENCE Electricity is the flow of electrons. Electrons are a fundamental building block of everything around us. Everything is made from atoms which are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively charged. Neutrons have no charge and electrons are negatively charged.

KEY QUESTION.

OCCUPA TION INVENTO R, ENGIN EER BORN JULY 10, DIED JANUARY

1856 IN S

AND PHY

MILJAN,

SICIST

CROATIA

7, 1943 IN

NEW YO RK, UNIT ED STAT ES BEST KN OWN FO R CONTRIB MODER UTIONS TO TH SUPPLYNS ALTERNATINGE DESIGN OF TH E CURRENT YSTEM ELECTRIC ITY

What is the difference between Current and Static Electricity?

SCENE 5. MONDEGREEN NATIONAL CURRICULUM KS3, Sound waves, KS2, Sound A mondegreen is a mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase as a result of near-homophony, in a way that gives it a new meaning. Mondegreens are most often created by a person listening to a poem or a song; the listener, being unable to clearly hear a lyric, substitutes words that sound similar, and make some kind of sense. Let’s have a look at some of the newest misinterpretations as a group.

SCENE 6. LIQUID NITROGEN NATIONAL CURRICULUM c- states of matter- solids liquids and gases, p- physical changes A series of demonstrations are done, linking back to energy and explaining how and why they work. These include freezing flowers and smashing them over a presenters head, A balloon filled with “air” being cooled down to – 196 degrees turning from a liquid into a gas, a 2 litre exploding bottle and a very large cloud produced right onstage.

THE SCIENCE Mondegreens are a sort of aural malapropism. Instead of

saying the wrong word, you hear the wrong word. The word mondegreen is generally used for misheard song lyrics, although technically it can apply to any speech. The term mondegreen was originally coined by author Sylvia Wright, and has come to be quite widely used. As a child, Wright heard the lyrics of The Bonny Earl of Murray (a Scottish ballad) as: Ye highlands and ye lowlands Oh where hae you been? Thou hae slay the Earl of Murray And Lady Mondegreen It eventually transpired that Lady Mondegreen existed only in the mind of Sylvia Wright, for the actual lyrics said that they “slay the Earl of Murray and laid him on the green.” And to this day Lady Mondegreen’s name has been used to describe all mishearings of this type!

KEY QUESTION.

What is a Mondegreen and why does it happen?

THE SCIENCE Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at an extremely

low temperature. It’s used in the cryogenic preservation of humans and pets amongst over things and in the future we may even see our cars run with it. Liquid nitrogen actually boils at minus 196 degrees.

KEY QUESTION.

Can things that are really cold, boil?

SCENE 7. CANNON WARFARE NATIONAL CURRICULUM c- the periodic table (H as a symbol, where it is etc)

SCENE 8. INVENTION NATIONAL CURRICULUM P matter

c- chemical reactions

NDISH E V A C Y R N HE

NAME

The voiceover from above leads us through the pirates and their weapons of science construction. First up, it’s the co2 cannon which fires foam balls into the audience. Number 2 – a hydrogen bottle rocket cannon which fires multiple 2 litre plastic bottles into the audience and finally number 3 – a pirates cannon which is built to contain a smoke machine and fires smoke rings across the audience. All cannons are explained and linked back to the inventors/discoverers and the different types of energy.

NAME

L CHRISTOPER COCKEREL

It’s time to look at some of the inventors who have shaped the modern world we live in. Here we look at Leonardo Da Vinci, Louis Pasteur, Marie Curie, James Watts, Sally Ride, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Lise Meitner, Hildegard of Bingden, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Graham Bell, Sir Tim Berners-Lee and finally Christopher Cockerell. The history of the hovercraft is looked at highlighting how Christopher Cockerell first tested the hovercraft in 1955 using an empty cat food tin inside a coffee tin, an industrial air blower and a pair of kitchen scales. We’ll then look at how he engineered the first hovercraft and then build one on stage. Only thing is – we need a pilot?

ON T OCCUPATI ST, CHEMIS ER, SCIENTI PH SO O IL PH CIST. AND PHYSI CE BORN NICE, FRAN 10, 1731 IN OCTOBER DIED LONDON 24, 1810 IN FEBRUARY N FOR BEST KNOW EN G HYDROG IN ER DISCOV

THE SCIENCE One of the cannons used fires Hydrogen bottle rockets which

are half filled with water and half filled with hydrogen gas. When the bottle is tipped up and the cap opened the water flows out of the bottle and the air rushes into the bottle. This gives a mixture of hydrogen and air inside the bottle. The hydrogen doesn’t come out of the bottle because it is lighter than air and so rises to the top of the bottle. When we mix oxygen with hydrogen and you ignite it then you have a very fast release of heat energy. In this case the oxygen is provided by the air that has rushed into the bottle. When the hydrogen is ignited the fast release of heat energy causes the surrounding air to expand or spread out suddenly. The expanding air has nowhere to go except out of the bottle.

KEY QUESTION.

What is the chemical symbol of Hydrogen?

OCCUPATION ER. INVENTOR AND ENGINE BORN GE, ENGLAND JUNE 4, 1910 IN CAMBRID DIED ENGLAND JUNE 1, 1999 IN HYTHE, BEST KNOWN FOR CRAFT INVENTING THE HOVER

KEY QUESTION.

THE SCIENCE The theory behind one of the most successful

inventions of the twentieth century, the Hovercraft, was originally tested in 1955 using an empty cat food tin inside a coffee tin, a hair dryer and a pair of kitchen scales. Christopher Cockerell was initially testing out the concept that it was possible to produce a cushion of air between the bottom of the tins and the surface of the scales. Once he had established that this was possible he decided to experiment with more sophisticated models.

Why is the hovercraft one of the most important inventions of the 20th Century?

SCENE 9. PERIODIC TABLE & THE ELEMENTS NATIONAL CURRICULUM C atoms, elements, compounds What’s the difference between an atom and an element and why is it called the periodic table? And is there a way in which you can remember every element on the periodic table in under two minutes?

SCENE 10. PEDAL POWER & RENEWABLE ENERGY NATIONAL CURRICULUM p- Calculation of fuel uses and costs in the domestic context In a world where everyone is obsessed with a smoothie can you turn it into a science experiment? Let’s see. Looking at the different types of renewable energy and pedal power combined, it’s time to see if the audience can exercise their way to a delicious smoothie.

NAME

DMITRI

MENDE

LEEV

THE SCIENCE The Periodic Table is a way of listing the elements. Elements

NAME

MICHAEL FARADAY

are listed in the table by the structure of their atoms. This includes how many protons they have as well as how many electrons they have in their outer shell. From left to right and top to bottom, the elements are listed in the order of their atomic number, which is the number of protons in each atom. In 1869 Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev started the development of the periodic table, arranging chemical elements by atomic mass. He predicted the discovery of other elements, and left spaces open in his periodic table for them.

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BORN FEBRUA R

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DIED FEBRUA R

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THE SCIENCE All the energy we use comes from the earth. The electricity we

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KEY QUESTION.

What is the difference between a period and a group on the periodic table?

use every day doesn’t come directly from the earth, but we make electricity using the earth’s resources, like coal or natural gas. Both coal and natural gas are called “fossil fuels” because they were formed deep under the earth during dinosaur times. The problem is that fossil fuels can’t be replaced - once we use them up, they’re gone forever. Another problem is that fossil fuels can cause pollution. Renewable energy is made from resources that Mother Nature will replace, like wind, water and sunshine. Renewable energy is also called “clean energy” or “green power” because it doesn’t pollute the air or the water.

KEY QUESTION.

OCCUPATION SCIENTIST BORN SEPTEMBER 22, 1791, NEWINGTON BUTTS DIED AUGUST 25, 1867, HAMPTON COURT PALACE, LONDON BEST KNOWN FOR VARIETY OF THINGS HOWEVER FARADAY’S PRINCIPLES LEAD TO THE THE FIRST DYNAMO BEING BUILT

How much energy is required to power the electrical items we use every day?

SCENE 11. EXPLOSIVE BALLOONS & THE FIRE TRIANGLE NATIONAL CURRICULUM C chemical reactions

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENERGY WE LOOK AT? CHEMICAL ENERGY

To consider the ability of your body to do work. The glucose (blood sugar) in your body is said to have “chemical energy” because the glucose releases energy when chemically reacted (combusted) with oxygen. Your muscles use this energy to generate mechanical force and also heat.

Explaining the fire triangle the balloons are ignited containing different mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen for a really loud bang.

NAME

JOSEPH PRIESTLEY

Chemical energy is really a form of microscopic potential energy, which exists because of the electric and magnetic forces of attraction exerted between the different parts of each molecule – the same attractive forces involved in thermal vibrations. These parts get rearranged in chemical reactions, releasing or adding to this potential energy.

THERMAL, OR HEAT ENERGY

THE SCIENCE When hydrogen is mixed with oxygen in the right amounts and is

ignited you get an explosion. When a hydrogen-filled balloon is ignited on its own the explosion isn’t so big. This is because it takes a little time for the hydrogen in the balloon to mix with the oxygen in the air, so the reaction is slightly slower. However, if you have the right amount of oxygen mixed with hydrogen before the balloon is ignited, you have a very fast release of heat energy. This causes the surrounding air to expand suddenly, resulting in a loud explosion and a burst balloon. The Fire Triangle is a simple way of understanding the factors of fire. Each side of the triangle represents one of the three ingredients needed to have a fire – oxygen, heat, and fuel – demonstrating the interdependence of these ingredients in creating and sustaining fire. When there is not enough heat generated to sustain the process, when the fuel is exhausted, removed, or isolated, or when oxygen supply is limited, then a side of the triangle is broken and the fire will die.

KEY QUESTION.

OCCUPATION ENGLISH THEOLOGIA N, NATURAL PHILO CHEMIST, EDUCAT SOPHER, OR BORN MARCH 24, 1733, BIR ST

ALL

DIED FEBRUARY 6, 1804, PENNSYLVANIA, UN ITED STATES BEST KNOWN FOR CREDITED WITH TH E

DISCOVERY OF OX

What are the three elements of the fire triangle?

YGEN

Consider a hot cup of coffee. The coffee is said to possess “thermal energy”, or “heat energy” which is really the collective, microscopic, kinetic and potential energy of the molecules in the coffee (the molecules have kinetic energy because they are moving and vibrating, and they have potential energy due their mutual attraction for one another – much the same way that the book and the Earth have potential energy because they attract each other. Temperature is really a measure of how much thermal energy something has. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules are moving around and/or vibrating, i.e. the more kinetic and potential energy the molecules have.

ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY Consider the energy stored in a battery. Like the example above involving blood sugar, the battery also stores energy in a chemical way. But electricity is also involved, so we say that the battery stores energy “electro-chemically”. Another electron chemical device is a “fuel-cell”.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY (LIGHT)

Consider the energy transmitted to the Earth from the Sun by light (or by any source of light). Light, which is also called “electro-magnetic radiation”. Why the fancy term? Because light really can be thought of as oscillating, coupled electric and magnetic fields that travel freely through space (without there having to be charged particles of some kind around). It turns out that light may also be thought of as little packets of energy called photons (that is, as particles, instead of waves). The word “photon” derives from the word “photo”, which means “light”. Photons are created when electrons jump to lower energy levels in atoms, and absorbed when electrons jump to higher levels. Photons are also created when a charged particle, such as an electron or proton, is accelerated, as for example happens in a radio transmitter antenna. But because light can also be described as waves, in addition to being a packet of energy, each photon also has a specific frequency and wavelength associated with it, which depends on how much energy the photon has (because of this weird duality – waves and particles at the same time – people sometimes call particles like photons “wavicles”). The lower the energy, the longer the wavelength and lower the frequency, and vice versa. The reason that sunlight can hurt your skin or your eyes is because it contains “ultraviolet light”, which consists of high energy photons. These photons have short wavelength and high frequency, and pack enough energy in each photon to cause physical damage to your skin if they get past the outer layer of skin or the lens in your eye. Radio waves, and the radiant heat you feel at a distance from a campfire, for example, are also forms of electro-magnetic radiation, or light, except that they consist of low energy photons (long wavelength and high frequencies – in the infrared band and lower) that your eyes can’t perceive. This was a great discovery of the nineteenth century – that radio waves, x-rays, and gamma-rays, are just forms of light, and that light is electro-magnetic waves.

POTENTIAL ENERGY Consider a book sitting on a table. The book is said

to have “potential energy” because if it is nudged off, gravity will accelerate the book, giving the book kinetic energy. Because the Earth’s gravity is necessary to create this kinetic energy, and because this gravity depends on the Earth being present, we say that the “Earth-book system” is what really possesses this potential energy, and that this energy is converted into kinetic energy as the book falls.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of smaller particles, called protons (which have positive charge), neutrons (which have neutral charge), and electrons (which are negatively charged). Electrons orbit around the centre, or nucleus, of atoms, just like the moon orbits the earth. The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Some material, particularly metals, have certain electrons that are only loosely attached to their atoms. They can easily be made to move from one atom to another if an electric field is applied to them. When those electrons move among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created. This is what happens in a piece of wire when an electric field, or voltage, is applied. The electrons pass from atom to atom, pushed by the electric field and by each other (they repel each other because like charges repel), thus creating the electrical current. The measure of how well something conducts electricity is called its conductivity, and the reciprocal of conductivity is called the resistance. Copper is used for many wires because it has a lower resistance than many other metals and is easy to use and obtain. Most of the wires in your house are made of copper. Some older homes still use aluminium wiring. The energy is really transferred by the chain of repulsive interactions between the electrons down the wire – not by the transfer of electrons per se. This is just like the way that water molecules can push on each other and transmit pressure (or force) through a pipe carrying water.

SUN ENERGY The Sun, nuclear reactors, and the interior of the

Earth, all have “nuclear reactions” as the source of their energy, that is, reactions that involve changes in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. In the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse (combine) together to make helium nuclei, in a process called fusion, which releases energy. In a nuclear reactor, or in the interior of the Earth, Uranium nuclei (and certain other heavy elements in the Earth’s interior) split apart, in a process called fission. If this didn’t happen, the Earth’s interior would have long gone cold! The energy released by fission and fusion is not just a product of the potential energy released by rearranging the nuclei. In fact, in both cases, fusion or fission, some of the matter making up the nuclei is actually converted into energy. How can this be? The answer is that matter itself is a form of energy! This concept involves one of the most famous formula’s in physics, the formula, E=mc2. This formula was discovered by Einstein as part of his “Theory of Special Relativity”. In simple words, this formula means: The energy intrinsically stored in a piece of matter at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared. When we plug numbers in this equation, we find that there is actually an incredibly huge amount of energy stored in even little pieces of matter (the speed of light squared is a very very large number!).

At points where a strong resistance is encountered, its harder for the electrons to flow – this creates a “back pressure” in a sense back to the source. This back pressure is what really transmits the energy from whatever is pushing the electrons through the wire. Of course, this applied “pressure” is the “voltage”.

For example, it would cost more than a million dollars to buy the energy stored intrinsically stored in a single penny at our current (relatively cheap!) electricity rates. To get some feeling for how much energy is really there, consider that nuclear weapons only release a small fraction of the “intrinsic” energy of their components.

As the electrons move through a “resistor” in the circuit, they interact with the atoms in the resistor very strongly, causing the resistor to heat up – hence delivering energy in the form of heat. Or, if the electrons are moving instead through the wound coils of a motor, they instead create a magnetic field, which interacts with other magnets in the motor, and hence turns the motor.

SOUND ENERGY Sound waves are compression waves associated

In this case the “back pressure” on the electrons, which is necessary for there to be a transfer of energy from the applied voltage to the motor’s shaft, is created by the magnetic fields of the other magnets (back) acting on the electrons – a perfect push-pull arrangement!

with the potential and kinetic energy of air molecules. When an object moves quickly, for example the head of drum, it compresses the air nearby, giving that air potential energy. That air then expands, transforming the potential energy into kinetic energy (moving air). The moving air then pushes on and compresses other air, and so on down the chain. A nice way to think of sound waves is as “shimmering air”.

GASES & CHEMICAL INFORMATION Methane Methane is a colourless, odourless gas that occurs abundantly in nature as the chief constituent of natural gas and as a component of firedamp in coal mines. It is also a product of the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of vegetable matter under water, hence its alternative name, marsh gas. Methane also is produced industrially by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal in the manufacture of coal gas and coke-oven gas. The activated-sludge process of sewage disposal also produces a gas rich in methane. Methane’s chemical formula is CH4. In general methane is very stable, but mixtures containing 5 to 14 percent in air are explosive. Explosions of such mixtures have been frequent in coal mines and the cause of many mine disasters.

Hydrogen Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table. It is the simplest possible atom composed of one proton in the nucleus which is orbited by a single electron. Hydrogen is the lightest of the elements and is the most abundant element in the universe. At standard temperature and pressure hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas. Hydrogen is very flammable and burns with an invisible flame. It burns when it comes into contact with oxygen. The byproduct of a hydrogen and oxygen explosion is water or H2O. Hydrogen gas is made up of diatomic molecules designated as H2. The most common place to find hydrogen on earth is in water. Each water molecule (H2 O) contains two hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is also found in a wide range of compounds throughout the earth including hydrocarbons, acids, and hydroxides. There is very little free hydrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere because it is so light that it eventually escapes into space. The only free hydrogen on earth is deep underground. It is found mostly in stars and gas giant planets. The Sun is made up of mostly hydrogen. Deep inside stars, the pressure is so high that hydrogen atoms are converted to helium atoms. This conversion is called fusion and it releases heat and energy that we see as sunlight. Hydrogen is a very useful element. It is used to make ammonia for fertilizers, refining metals, and methanol for making artificial material like plastics. Hydrogen is also used as a rocket fuel where liquid hydrogen is combined with liquid oxygen to produce a powerful explosion. Scientists hope that someday hydrogen can be used as a clean fuel alternative to power our vehicles.

Oxygen Oxygen is an important element that is needed by most life forms on Earth to survive. It is the third most abundant element in the universe and the most abundant element in the human body. Oxygen has 8 electrons and 8 protons. It is located at the top of column 16 in the periodic table.

SHAPING THE WORLD WE LIVE IN LEONARDO DA VINCI Leonardo da Vinci was an artist, scientist, and inventor during the Italian Renaissance. He is considered by many to be one of the most talented and intelligent people of all time. The term Renaissance Man (someone who does many things very well) was coined from Leonardo’s many talents and is today used to describe people who resemble da Vinci. Leonardo was born in the town of Vinci, Italy on April 15, 1452. Not much is known about his childhood other than his father was wealthy and had a number of wives. About the age of 14 he became an apprentice to a famous artist named Verrocchio. This is where he learned about art, drawing, painting and more. Leonardo da Vinci is regarded as one of the greatest artists in history. Leonardo excelled in many areas including drawing, painting, and sculpture. Although we don’t have a lot of his paintings today, he is probably most famous for his paintings and also gained great fame during his own time due to his paintings. Two of his most famous paintings, and perhaps two of the most famous in the world, include the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. Leonardo’s drawings are also quite extraordinary. He would keep journals full of drawings and sketches, often of different subjects that he was studying. Some of his drawings were previews to later paintings, some were studies of anatomy, some were closer to scientific sketches. One famous drawing is the Vitruvian Man drawing. It is a picture of man who has perfect proportions based off the notes from the Roman architect Vitruvius. Other famous drawings include a design for a flying machine and a self portrait. Many of da Vinci’s drawings and journals were made in his pursuit of scientific knowledge and inventions. His journals were filled with over 13,000 pages of his observations of the world. He drew pictures and designs of hang gliders, helicopters, war machines, musical instruments, various pumps, and more. He was interested in civil engineering projects and designed a single span bridge, a way to divert the Arno River, and moveable barricades which would help protect a city in the case of attack.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Benjamin Franklin was a modern day Renaissance Man. Like Leonardo da Vinci, Ben Franklin excelled in many areas including science, inventing, politics, writing, music, and diplomacy. He is one of the founding fathers of the United States of America and is often called the “First American”. Ben was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 17, 1706. His father was a candle maker. Ben stopped going to school when he was 10 and starting working as an apprentice for his brother as printer when he was 12. He gained most of this education by reading a lot of books. Ben ran away when he was 17, breaking his apprenticeship with his brother. He went to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where he worked as a printer. Ben first became known to the public as the publisher of the newspaper the Pennsylvania Gazette. He gained some notoriety as an American spokesman when his testimony to the House of Commons in England helped to get the hated Stamp Act repealed. During the Revolutionary War, Ben Franklin became Pennsylvania’s representative to the Second Continental Congress. He was one of the five members that drafted the Declaration of Independence While Thomas Jefferson was the main author, Ben did make some changes and had an influence on the final draft. One of his key roles in the Revolutionary War was as Ambassador to France. He helped to secure the Treaty of Paris, which got the French army on the side of the Americans and helped to turn the tide of the war. Franklin also took part in the Constitutional Convention and is the only Founding Father to sign all four major documents in the founding of the United States. These include the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Treaty of Paris, and the Treaty of Alliance with France. As if being a prolific writer and a major player in the founding of the United States wasn’t enough, Ben Franklin still found time to be a prominent inventor and scientist. Perhaps Ben Franklin is most famous for his experiments with electricity. He did many experiments to prove that lightning is in fact electricity. This led to his invention of the lighting rod, which helps to keep buildings safe from lighting. Other inventions by Ben Franklin include bifocals (a type of glasses), the Franklin stove, an odometer for a carriage, and the glass harmonica. In science he studied and made discoveries in the area of electricity, cooling, meteorology, printing, and the wave theory of light.

LOUIS PASTEUR Louis Pasteur was born in Dole, France on December 27, 1822. His family was poor and during his early education he was an average student who enjoyed art and singing. However, when Louis was exposed to science as a teenager, he knew he had found his calling. In 1838, Louis went to college to become a science teacher. He earned degrees in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. He then became a chemistry professor at the University of Strasbourg. While at the University he fell in love with the daughter of the university’s rector, Marie Laurent. He and Marie married in 1849. They had five children, however, three died young from typhoid fever. It was the deaths of his children that drove Louis to investigate infectious diseases in order to find a cure. During Pasteur’s time, people believed that microbes such as bacteria appeared due to “spontaneous generation.” They thought that the bacteria just appeared out of nowhere. Pasteur ran experiments to see if this was true. Through his experiments he proved that germs (i.e. bacteria) were living things that came from other living things. They didn’t just spontaneously appear. This was a major discovery in the study of biology and earned Pasteur the nickname the “Father of Germ Theory.” Pasteur used his knowledge of germs to investigate how beverages such as wine and milk were spoiled by microbes such as bacteria and molds. He found that heating up the liquids would kill most of the microbes and allow the beverages to last longer and be safer to drink. This process became known as pasteurization and is still done on many foods such as milk, vinegar, wines, cheese, and juices. As Pasteur learned more and more about bacteria, he began to think they may be the cause of disease in humans. When the French silk market was threatened by a disease to silkworms, Pasteur decided to investigate. He discovered that this disease was caused by microbes. By eliminating the microbes from the silkworm farms, he was able to end the disease and save the French silk business. Pasteur continued to investigate with diseases. He found that he could make a weak form of a disease that would cause people to become immune to the stronger form of the disease. He called this weak form a “vaccine.” He first discovered this by working with cattle on the disease anthrax. The first vaccine he gave to a human was the rabies vaccine. He administered it to a nine year old boy name Joseph Meister in 1885. Today Louis Pasteur is known as one of the most important scientists in history. His discoveries led to an understanding of microbes and diseases that has helped to save millions and millions of lives. Pasteur is most remembered by the Pasteur Institute which he established in 1887. Today the Pasteur Institute is one of the world leaders in battling infectious diseases. Louis Pasteur died in 1895 from a stroke. He was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, France.

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL

Alexander Graham Bell is most famous for his invention of the telephone. He first became interested in the science of sound because both his mother and wife were deaf. His experiments in sound eventually let him to want to send voice signals down a telegraph wire. He was able to get some funding and hire his famous assistant Thomas Watson and together they were able to come up with the telephone. The first words spoken over the telephone were by Alex on March 10, 1876. They were “Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you”. It turns out that other scientists had similar ideas. Bell had to race to the patent office in order to get his patent in first. He was first and, as a result, Bell and his investors had a valuable patent that would change the world. They formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877. There have been many mergers and name changes over the years, but this company is known today as AT&T. Bell was born on March 3, 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. He grew up in Scotland and was initially homeschooled by his father who was a professor. He later would attend high school as well as the University of Edinburgh. Bell actually had many inventions and did experimentation in many areas of science. Some of these include: • The Metal Detector - Bell invented the first metal detector which was used to try and find a bullet inside of President James Garfield. • Audiometer - A device used to detect hearing problems. • He did experimental work on aeronautics and hydrofoils. • He invented techniques which helped in teaching speech to deaf persons. • He made a device to help find icebergs.

SALLY RIDE Sally went to Stanford University, where she studied physics (laws of nature and universe). One day, Sally saw an ad in a school newspaper from N.A.S.A. (the National Aeronautics Space Administration), looking for future astronauts. Sally applied and was accepted. After a long time practicing, in 1983, Sally became the first woman astronaut to orbit Earth in space. She experienced weightlessness and even grew an inch because her spine was not compressed by gravity as it is on Earth. While in space, she performed many experiments, which help people to learn how to adapt to life in space

THOMAS EDISON Thomas Edison may be the greatest inventor in history. He has over 1000 patents in his name. Many of his inventions still have a major affect on our lives today. He was also a business entrepreneur. Many of his inventions were group efforts in his large invention laboratory where he had many people working for him to help develop, build, and test his inventions. He also started many companies including General Electric, which is one of the biggest corporations in the world today. Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio on February 11, 1847. His family soon moved to Port Huron, Michigan where he spent most of his childhood. Surprisingly, he did not do well in school and ended up being home schooled by his mother. Thomas was an enterprising young man, selling vegetables, candy and newspapers on trains. One day he saved a child from a runaway train. The child’s father repaid Edison by training him as a telegraph operator. As a telegraph operator, Thomas became interested in communications, which would be the focus of many of his inventions.

LISE MEITNER

Lise grew up in Austria, and wanted to be a scientist. In Austria, though, few women were allowed into universities. Despite this, Lise became the first woman to graduate with a doctoral degree in physics from the University of Vienna. She moved to Berlin, Germany so she could be near more scientists, and studied atoms (tiny particles that make up every element) with Dr. Otto Hahn. They studied together for 30 years, and discovered a new element, protactinium. Because Lise was Jewish, she was forced to move to Sweden in order to escape Nazi Germany. She then worked in the Nobel Physics Institute. Dr. Hahn contacted her about a strange reaction he noticed during experiments with uranium atoms, and Lise discovered that tremendous energy could be released when atoms were split. Dr. Lise Meitner told others of her discovery of “nuclear fission”. This discovery was used in weapons, but also in more useful purposes, such as power and medicine.

HILDEGARD OF BINGDEN Hildegard was born into a wealthy German family, and received an education in a convent. Convents or abbeys were some of the only places women could receive formal education during the Dark Ages. Hildegard studied Latin, religion, and music. She became the abbess (leader) of her abbey. Hildegard wrote natural history books as well as medical books, and was the first person to write about the need to boil drinking water for sanitation. Hildegard also taught religion and medicine, and she emphasized the importance of exercise and diet. She is the first woman whose scientific writings still exist today.

NEIL ARMSTRONG Neil Armstrong was an American astronaut who became the first human to walk on the moon. At age 20, Armstrong served in the Korean War, where he flew 78 combat missions. He received an Air Medal and two Gold Stars. In 1955, he graduated from Purdue University with a degree in aeronautical engineering. After getting a master’s degree in aeronautical engineering, Armstrong became a civilian test pilot for NACA (later NASA) at the High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Armstrong tested high-speed airplanes and reached an altitude of 207,500 feet and a speed of 3,989 miles per hour (mach 5.74). In 1962, NASA selected Armstrong to be an astronaut. He served as the backup command pilot for the Gemini 5 mission in 1965. He was the backup command pilot for the Gemini 11 mission in 1966. He also served as commander of the backup crew for the Apollo 8 lunar orbital mission in 1968. In 1969, Armstrong commanded the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. After landing his lunar module on the surface of the moon, Armstrong exited and became the first person in world history to set foot on the moon. Upon setting foot on the moon, Armstrong uttered the timeless quote “That’s one small step for a man; one giant leap for mankind.” Armstrong’s landing was the source of great pride for the United States in their never ending space race with the Soviet Union. Neil Armstrong died on August 25, 2012, in Cincinnati, Ohio.

HENRY FORD

Henry Ford is most famous for starting up the Ford Motor Company. Ford is still one of the world’s largest makers of cars including brands such as Ford, Lincoln, Mercury, Volvo, Mazda, and Land Rover. Ford was a pioneer in manufacturing using the assembly line. This enabled his company to manufacture cars on a large scale at a cheap price. For the first time, cars were affordable for the average American family. Henry grew up in Greenfield Township, Michigan. His father was a farmer and wanted Henry to take over the family farm, but Henry had no interest in farming. He was much more interested in machines and building things. He left home at the age of 16 and went to Detroit to become an apprentice machinist. Ford had two brothers and two sisters. The Assembly Line - It is often stated that Henry Ford invented the assembly line. This is where a large number of products are made one step at a time as they pass down a line. Using an assembly line allows for the mass production of products at a cheaper price than trying to build an entire product one at a time. What Henry Ford did was apply this concept to the automobile and perfect it for the mass production of cars at a much lower price than current production methods. Ford’s work in using and streamlining the assembly line was an example of just how powerful an assembly line could be in mass producing products.

MARIE CURIE Marie Curie grew up in Warsaw, Poland where she was born on November 7, 1867. Her birth name was Maria Sklodowska. Her parents were both teachers. Growing up the child of two teachers, Marie was taught to read and write early. After graduating from high school, Marie wanted to attend a university, but this wasn’t something that young women did in Poland in the 1800s. The university was for men. However, there was a famous university in Paris, France called the Sorbonne that women could attend. Marie did not have the money to go there, but agreed to work to help pay for her sister Bronislawa to go to school in France, if she would help Marie after she graduated. In 1894 Marie met Pierre Curie. Like Marie, he was a scientist and the two of them fell in love. They married a year later and soon had their first child, a daughter named Irene. Marie became fascinated by rays that were recently discovered by scientists Wilhelm Roentgen and Henri Becquerel. Roentgen discovered X-rays and Becquerel had found rays given off by an element called uranium. Marie began to do experiments. One day Marie was examining a material called pitchblende. She expected there to be a few rays from the uranium in pitchblende, but instead Marie found a lot of rays. She soon realized that there must be a new, undiscovered element in pitchblende. Marie and her husband spent many hours in the science lab investigating pitchblende and the new element. They eventually figured out that there were two new elements in pitchblende. They had discovered two new elements for the periodic table! Marie named one of the elements polonium after her homeland Poland. She named the other radium, because it gave off such strong rays. The Curies came up with the term “radioactivity” to describe elements that emitted strong rays. In 1903, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Marie and Pierre Curie as well as Henri Becquerel for their work in radiation. Marie became the first woman to be awarded the prize. In 1911 Marie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering the two elements, polonium and radium. She was the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes. Marie became very famous. Scientists came from around the world to study radioactivity with Marie. Soon doctors found that radiology could help with curing cancer.

JOSEPH PRIESTLEY

(1733–1804). A clergyman who at one time was driven from his home because of his liberal politics, Joseph Priestley is remembered principally for his contributions to science. For his best-known accomplishment— the discovery of oxygen—he must share the credit with the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who is believed to have made the same discovery somewhat earlier. Priestley announced his find, however, to the French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Lavoisier, realising that Priestley had isolated an important new element, named it and demonstrated its role in combustion. Priestley was born on March 13, 1733, near Leeds, Yorkshire, England. He studied for the ministry at Daventry Academy in Northamptonshire, but his unorthodox religious ideas made it easier for him to make his living as a teacher than as a clergyman. He taught at Warrington Academy in Lancashire, where his emphasis on practical education contributed greatly to the school’s success. In addition to his discovery of oxygen and other gases, Priestley studied electricity and optics. His belief in personal liberty led him to support the French Revolution. He and his family had settled in Birmingham in 1779, but opposition to his unpopular views forced them to leave there in 1791. Three years later he and his wife left England to join their sons in the United States. They settled in Northumberland, Pa., where Priestley died on Feb. 6, 1804.

ALESSANDRO VOLTA Born in Como, Italy, into a noble family, Count Volta was a physicist and pioneer in the study of electricity. “Volt,” named after Count Volta, is a measurement of electricity. Count Volta also made discoveries in electrostatics, meteorology and pneumatics. His most famous invention, however, is the first battery.

HENRY CAVENDISH Henry Cavendish (October 10, 1731 – February 24, 1810) was a British scientist. The grandson of the 2nd Duke of Devonshire, he attended Cambridge from 1749 to 1753 but left without taking a degree. He inherited a large fortune which enabled him to pursue his scientific studies, most of which remained unpublished during his lifetime.

The idea came from Luigi Galvani, an anatomist. Galvani was dissecting a frog when the frog’s leg began to twitch. Galvani thought this was because of some type of electrical action in the vicinity, such as lightening. Volta tried to duplicate the experiment, and he did on a clear day when there was no lightening. Through experimentation, Volta realized that the two different metal objects holding the frog leg might be the source of the action. Over a period of several years he worked out that the wet muscle tissue conducted a current between the two different type of metals. Volta modified this effect to produce the first continuous flow of electric current. Around 1800, he invented a wet battery called a Voltaic Pile.

He is generally credited with having discovered hydrogen, since he had described the density of ‘inflammable air’, which formed water on combustion, in a paper “On Factitious Airs” that appeared in 1766. Antoine Lavoisier later reproduced his experiment and gave the element its name.

The Voltaic Pile consisted of discs of copper and zinc separated by discs of paper or cardboard (soaked in salt water). Attached to the top and bottom of this “Pile” was a copper wire. When Volta closed the circuit, electricity flowed through the pile. Volta’s battery was later refined by other scientists, and the French emperor, Napoleon, made Volta a “Count” for his discovery.

He was silent and solitary, viewed as somewhat eccentric, and formed no close personal relationships outside his family.

SIR CHRISTOPHER COCKERELL Sir Christopher Cockerell was one of the most amazing inventors of the 20th Century. He invented lots of different things, but he will be best remembered for inventing the hovercraft. Born in 1910 near Cambridge, Sir Christopher’s interest in science was encouraged at Gresham’s School at Holt in Norfolk. He studied engineering at Cambridge University, and joined Marconi as a wireless engineer in 1935.

Cavendish is also credited with one of the earliest accurate calculations of the mass of the earth. He used a torsion balance to measure the gravitational attraction between lead spheres in 1798, from which he calculated Newton’s gravitational constant, ‘G’, which he used to calculate the earth’s mass.

He left a large estate on his death which was used to endow the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University in 1871.

He made 36 inventions for the company, for which he was paid £10 each. In 1950 he left Marconi and bought a boat building/hire business on the Norfolk Broads. He used a baked beans’ can and a firework in an early attempt to prove that a vehicle could float on air. He finally proved that it was possible on Oulton Broad near Lowestoft in the early 1950s. The first commercial vessel crossed the channel in 1959. Hovercrafts are now used all over the world and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution in north Norfolk has one of only two hovercrafts in the UK, for sea rescue. Cockerell had to fight for years to get any financial recognition and he believed inventors often got a raw deal. Sir Christopher Cockerell passed away on the 40th anniversary of the launch of the hovercraft, June 1st 1999.

SIR TIM BERNERS-LEE Sir Tim Berners-Lee is a British computer scientist who invented the World Wide Web. Timothy John Berners Lee was born on 8 June 1955 and grew up in London. He studied physics at Oxford University and became a software engineer. In 1980, while working at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, he first described the concept of a global system, based on the concept of ‘hypertext’, that would allow researchers anywhere to share information. He also built a prototype called ‘Enquire’. In 1984, Berners Lee’s returned to CERN, which was also home to a major European Internet node. In 1989, Berners Lee published a paper called ‘Information Management: A Proposal’ in which he married up hypertext with the Internet, to create a system for sharing and distributing information not just within a company, but globally. He named it the World Wide Web. He also created the first web browser and editor. The world’s first website, http://info.cern.ch, was launched on 6 August 1991. It explained the World Wide Web concept and gave users an introduction to getting started with their own websites. In 1994, Berners Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium at the Laboratory of Computer Science (LCS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. He has served as director of the consortium since then. He also works as a senior research scientist at LCS which has now become the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.

ADA LOVELACE Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (née Byron; 10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852) was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage’s early mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. Her notes on the engine include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be carried out by a machine. Because of this, she is often regarded as the first computer programmer.

JAMES WATTS James Watt was a Scottish engineer and inventor and one of the most important contributors to the Industrial Revolution. He is best known for making major improvements to the

steam engine. Watt was born in Greenock, Scotland in 1736. He was good at engineering and mathematics and on leaving school he made and repaired scientific and astronomical instruments. In the late 1750s he began to experiment with steam, even though he had never seen a working steam engine. In 1769 he took out a patent for a new condensing chamber. Watt built a steam engine which used 75 percent less fuel than previous models. It was first used to pump water from mines and then replaced all other steam engines. In the late 1760s, Watt worked with the inventor John Roebuck and then an engineer, Matthew Boulton. They made steam engines for canals, coal mines and paper, cotton and flour mills. Watt became very rich and continued to invent things, including a working machine for copying medallions and sculptures.

MICHAEL FARADAY Well regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time, Michael Faraday was a British physicist and chemist whose combined expertise led to the development of many of today’s common technologies. Michael Faraday was born in England in 1791. His work on electrochemistry and electromagnetism laid the foundation for many areas of science. He formed the basis of the electromagnetic field concept in physics, discovered the laws of electrolysis, invented electromagnetic rotary devices that were vital in the creation of electric motors and played a key role in the development of electricity for use in technology. Not limited to physics and electromagnetism, Faraday also invented a simple Bunsen burner, coined terms such as electrode, cathode, anode and ion, discovered benzene and investigated the nature of chlorine.

SIR ISAAC NEWTON Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential scientists of all time. He came up with numerous theories and contributed ideas to many different fields including physics, mathematics and philosophy. Born in England, Isaac Newton was a highly influential physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, alchemist and theologian. In 1687, Newton published Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, what is widely regarded to be one of the important books in the history of science. In it he describes universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, concepts that remained at the forefront of science for centuries after. Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass, the earth and moon for example. Newton’s three laws of motion relate the forces acting on a body to its motion. The first is the law of inertia, it states that ‘every object in motion will stay in motion until acted upon by an outside force’. The second is commonly stated as ‘force equals mass times acceleration’, or F = ma. The third and final law is commonly known as ‘to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’. Other significant work by Newton includes the principles of conservation related to momentum and angular momentum, the refraction of light, an empirical law of cooling, the building of the first practical telescope and much more. Newton was known to have said that his work on formulating a theory of gravitation was inspired by watching an apple fall from a tree. A story well publicised to this very day.

THE PERIODIC TABLE The Periodic Table is a way of listing the elements. Elements are listed in the table by the structure of their atoms. This includes how many protons they have as well as how many electrons they have in their outer shell. From left to right and top to bottom, the elements are listed in the order of their atomic number, which is the number of protons in each atom. It is called “periodic” because elements are lined up in cycles or periods. From left to right elements are lined up in rows based on their atomic number (the number of protons in their nucleus). Some columns are skipped in order for elements with the same number of valence electrons to line up on the same columns. When they are lined up this way, elements in the columns have similar properties. Each horizontal row in the table is a period. There are seven (or eight) total periods. The first one is short and only has two elements, hydrogen and helium. The sixth period has 32 elements. In each period the left most element has 1 electron in its outer shell and the right most element has a full shell. Groups are the columns of the periodic table. There are 18 columns or groups and different groups have different properties. One example of a group is the noble or inert gases. These elements all line up in the eighteenth or last column of the periodic table. They all have a full outer shell of electrons, making them very stable (they tend not to react with other elements). Another example is the alkali metals which all align on the left-most column. They are all very similar in that they have only 1 electron in their outer shell and are very reactive. You can see all the groups in the table below. This lining-up and grouping of similar elements helps chemists when working with elements. They can understand and predict how an element might react or behave in a certain situation. Each element has its own name and abbreviation in the periodic table. Some of the abbreviations are easy to remember, like H for hydrogen. Some are a bit harder like Fe for iron or Au for gold. For gold the “Au” comes from the Latin word for gold “aurum”The Periodic Table is a way of listing the elements. Elements are listed in the table by the structure of their atoms. This includes how many protons they have as well as how many electrons they have in their outer shell. From left to right and top to bottom, the elements are listed in the order of their atomic number, which is the number of protons in each atom.

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