Chapter 9
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Water Challenges in India and Their Technological Solutions Sanjay Bajpai,* Neelima Alam, and Vineet Saini Technology Mission Cell, Department of Science and Technology (DST), Technology Bhavan, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi 110016 *E-mail:
[email protected].
Problems associated with water can be broadly grouped as a) inadequate availability of water, b) poor quality of water for the intended use and c) indiscriminate use of this valuable natural resource. The technological approaches for solving the problems may therefore emanate from a) Winning water from sustainable resources, b) Augmentation of quality of water from available and accessible sources and c) Renovation for recycle. A Technology Mission on Winning, Augmentation and Renovation (WAR) for water was mounted in 2009-10 to address the water challenges adopting three pronged technological approaches stated above by Union Ministry of Science and Technology. The mission shaped several research-led solutions through national and coordinated approach. The Technology mission WAR for Water was developed on the principle that timely, urgent, cost effective, socially viable and holistic sustainable techno-management solutions are required for solving problems of water. The mission emphasized problem solving approach and focused on applications research in view of urgency of the solutions required. The major challenges facing the country as well as the representative hotspots for addressing these challenges were identified to mount research based solutions. Roping in solution providers and stakeholders to address water challenges through meeting technical and economic benchmarks with well defined revenue model for technology based and community management solutions was a novel experiment taken up under © 2015 American Chemical Society In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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the mission. Pilot trials and performance evaluation of 25 convergent solutions covering 19 water issues for addressing water challenges in 14 provinces has been implemented. The initiative also promoted developmental research for designing and developing low cost solutions for domestic use of safe drinking water, referencing of technologies to social context, capacity building of water managers and encouraging new research ideas. Bilateral and multilateral Innovation Cooperation was developed to promote Joint R&D as well as deployment of innovative solutions for treatment of drinking water, waste water treatment and contaminant detection. Capacity building programme for sustainable rainwater harvesting and ground water recharge programmes which included rooftop rainwater harvesting, rainwater harvesting in paved and unpaved areas and rainwater harvesting in lakes and tanks evinced interest not only from Indian provinces (states) but also from several developing countries and training programmes were conceptualized and implemented for participants from 15 developing countries.
Introduction Water is a fundamental need for human civilization. Per capita availability of water is decreasing rapidly globally as well as in India. Quality deficit of water for domestic use and quantum deficit of water for irrigation are posing serious challenges. This is resulting in severe demand supply mismatch and sharing of water among communities is becoming increasingly more challenging (1). Since these challenges are a result of several social and managerial conflicts, resolution of these conflicts and addressing water challenges may need more tools than what science and technology can offer. However, Science and Technology can certainly provide viable and innovative tools for managing the net water demand and supply. S&T has a dual role to play, namely aiding in the policy formulation and in facilitating, through technology innovations, the implementation of policy. R&D efforts should aim at bringing out improvements in tools, techniques and technologies that could lead to efficient management of water resources in optimal, integrated and harmonious manner. In order to make available, safe water for all and always, it is imperative that water is available. As water is a resource which has to meet competing requirements, availability need to be seen holistically and demand supply mismatch should be addressed through appropriate prioritization. Besides availability issue, the quality of the water may not be appropriate for intended use. The community needs to be aware of water challenge prevalent in location. While the urban water supply predominately uses surface and ground water, nearly 70% of drinking water requirements in rural India are met by ground water. The quality of ground water is variable and often does not meet the drinking water requirements. Often ground water is brackish, saline or contaminated 162 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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with excess fluoride, arsenic, iron etc or microorganisms. At few locations, contamination is due to multiple species (2). As the origin of most of the groundwater contamination is geological, it is quite likely that locations in contiguous areas are affected by similar contaminants. Water challenge in such areas may be similar in character. In order to augment the available /accessible water, it is necessary that suitable treatment technologies may be implanted to make contaminated water suitable for drinking. More often, a combination of technology options would be required to provide solution to the problem. For example, in water scarce locations, water harvesting technologies could be augmented with selection of crops demanding less water and adoption of efficient irrigation practices consuming less water to derive full benefits of intervention. Similarly, the locations affected by water scarcity as well as excessive brackish and saline ground water would require both harvesting and treatment technologies for providing complete solution. Water related challenges greatly vary in nature. Also, acuteness of water related challenges could be related to the economic status of the people (3). Problems faced by the poor people and people at the bottom of pyramid are more acute as they lack knowledge and resources to deal with these challenges. In a country like India with vast disparities, distribution and pricing of water poses another challenge. Generic approaches though amenable to easy delivery and marketability are unlikely to be scalable and sustainable. Customization is the key to sustainability which could be achieved by solution design approach. Technology solutions to water related problems in India should meet several criteria specific to the location and community behavior and are required to be tailored to the socio-economic context. It is, therefore, imperative that solutions are designed for ease of access from the users’ perspective, economic viability from solution providers’ as well as users’ perspective, technical viability, environmental sustainability and social viability.
Research Plan for Implementation of Technology Mission: WAR for Water Recognizing that research on water was being undertaken in several institutions and agencies in a non-coordinated manner, WAR for Water was an attempt for coordinated research on water for finding out technical solutions to the water related challenges necessary to address and solve the problem of water scarcity in the country through recourse to research and technology. As problems of water challenge required immediate solutions, the Technology Mission: WAR for water explored scouting and sourcing of technologies available and accessible from the accumulated experience, nationally as well as globally. The experiment involved meticulous planning for finding out viable solutions for water related challenges faced by the community. The scale, scope and seriousness of a wide range of water related real life challenges were proposed to be mapped in different social environment based on real life data. It was anticipated that the collected data would quantify the water challenges and assess the impacted population. The outcome of this exercise was expected to result in development of research package on data gathering comprising 163 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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of methodology for selection of water related challenge and likely technical solutions; collection of site specific data including information on economic status of impacted population for building internal revenue and recovery models on various locations of India with differing water challenges. The study of water challenges, their socio-economic impact, spotting and scouting feasible solutions from national and international technology sources and research on techno economic feasibility of available and emerging technologies based on scientific and technical assessment leading to quantitative ranking of offered solutions was expected to result in transparent criteria for priority selection based on feasibility of solutions and their impact potential. The approach plan emphasized extensive research, analysis and bench study of offered solutions to match the solution with problems in real field locations. Adequate attention was given to the resource planning and flow arrangements for each of the identified project location. The mission also envisaged pilot trials for proposed solutions under real life conditions. Enrollment of the community leaders for rooting the selected solution was essential component of all the interventions. In order to evolve least cost and best revenue model, techno-economic assessment coupled with social audit and impact study of selected technologies option for sustainability was also envisaged (4). The research plan identified eight distinct steps which included selection of about 25 different water related challenges in select locations and matching most appropriate technology solutions within the capacity of the local community to apply the solution in a sustainable manner followed by technical scale evaluation and proving of viabilities in credible proportions. (Figure 1)
Figure 1. Research plan. 164 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
Identification of Water Challenges
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India is facing several water challenges which, arise out of multiple causes. Quantum deficit of water for agriculture and irrigation and quality deficit of water for drinking purpose are the two broad categories of major challenges (5). The Mission identified water quantity, water quality and water management issues and enlisted the specific challenges that were required to be addressed to demonstrate scientific methodology for a developing, demonstrating and rooting technology based on holistic and sustainable solutions. A total of 26 water challenges affecting the population of India including 9 generic challenges prevalent across the country in different locations were enumerated. • Challenges Related to Water Quantity i) Low per capita availability, ii) Evaporation loss from water bodies, iii) Water winning and mining in water starved areas • Challenges Related to Water Quality i) Quality deficit of available water for specified uses, ii) Geological contamination through arsenic, iii) Contamination through fluoride, iv) Contamination through iron, v) Biological contamination, vi) Alkaline earth metal salt salinity and hardness, vii) Alkali metal ion salinity, viii) Contamination of water on account of pesticide and other water derived residues, ix) Contamination through multiple species, x) Deficit of assurance for drinking water quality, xi) Sea water intrusion in coastal areas, xii) Reject management from water related technologies, xiii) Silica & Strontium contamination. • Challenges Amenable to Site Specific Water Use Management i) Storage capacity for seasonally available water, ii) Surface run-off on account of nature of geological terrain, iii) Water body disuse, iv) Mismatched rates of withdrawal and recharging capacity v) Non-optimal use of water in agriculture, vi) Non-optimal use of water in industrial sector, vii) Unplanned water use and demand, viii) River flood management and ix) Wetland management x) Non-sustainable water cycle management.
Selection of Water Challenged Hotspots • Identification of Water Challenged Sites India is a federal country comprising of 29 states (provinces) and 7 Union Territories. The Constitution of India lists water as a state subject implying jurisdiction of states (provinces) on the matters concerning water. The Union Ministry of Science and Technology involved the state (provincial) Governments to identify five most water challenged hotspots (of a population size of around 10000), representative of major water challenges affecting in the state. The 165 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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preliminary data available regarding the prevalent water challenge was also compiled. This exercise resulted in identification of 167 (hotspots) sites across the country. A majority of identified hotspots faced water quantity related challenge (55%), while 32% hotspots faced issues related to water quality. Relatively small percentage of identified hotspots (13%) faced problems due to management issues. (Figure 2)
Figure 2. Percentage distribution of hotspots facing water challenges.
Amongst water quantity related issues, low per capita availability was identified as an issue in 94% of hotspots. (Figure 3)
Figure 3. Percentage distribution of hotspots facing Water Quantity related challenges. 166 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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Figure 4. Percentage distribution of hotspots facing Water Quality related challenges.
Figure 5. Percentage distribution of hotspots facing Water Management related challenges. 167 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
Regarding water quality related challenges, alkaline earth metal salt salinity and hardness followed by fluoride contamination and multiple species contamination were the top water challenges faced by most of the hotspots. Arsenic, biological and iron contamination was reported from a smaller number of hotspots. (Figure 4) Surface run-off and mismatch withdrawal and recharge were the major issues in most of the hotspots facing water management related challenges. (Figure 5).
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• Selection of Hotspots for Pilot Trials The water challenged hotspots identified by the states (provinces) were mapped to display their geographical distribution. (Figure 6) In order to select sites for undertaking technical solutions for different water related challenges, an objective criterion for the selection of sites was developed for inclusion in the mission. The identified water challenges were categorised into two broad segments viz. challenges specific to a particular site and challenges of generic nature like the river flood management, wetland management, water body disuse etc amenable to intervention in any affected location.
Figure 6. Geographical distribution of water challenged hotspots identified by State (province) for Technology Mission: WAR for Water. 168 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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The criterion took into cognizance and assigned due weightage to factors such as the geographical terrain, population catered, severity and complexity of water challenges, felt need and demand from community, amenability of challenge to innovative technological solution and reliability of preliminary data to support prevalence of water challenge. Based on these criteria, 86 sites/clusters identified by States and Union Territories were shortlisted and mapped on to different river basins. Based on the requirements for devising appropriate solutions, detailed site specific information was collected and compiled for mounting the pilot trials.
Collection of Site Specific Conditions for Technical Evaluation Hydro-geological information in Geographical Information System (GIS) format on water related challenges for the selected sites were gathered. Further, a data capture instrument was prepared for field study of clusters. The instrument was designed to capture respondent profile in terms of occupation; site profile including geography, area characteristics (residential, agriculture, waste land etc.), cropping pattern, housing, human and livestock population; demographic profile in terms of primary occupation, educational & health care facility, level of industrialization; estimation of water demand for various uses; information on water availability sources, water harvesting, rainfall; perceived water challenges and coping mechanism of the community; health profile and community willingness to pay for drinking water. This elaborate exercise resulted in capturing site specific data for 49 clusters relating to various types of water challenges. Based on this data, water supply & demand estimated, as of now, and in 2020, were compiled and analyzed to make an assessment of demand side and supply side scenario.
Technical Evaluation and Assessment of Generic Solutions In order to facilitate search for solutions for different water related challenges in India, a database on about 250 solution providers for drinking water related problems was created. An objective criterion for selection of commercially available stand-alone water purification systems for rural school settings was developed. The criterion included product definition, power/ electricity requirement, market readiness, reject management and cost of treated water besides special requirements of schools such as large amount of water drawn during recess, non-operation of system during vacations etc. Rural schools, being the hub of information dissemination and sensitization towards the need for safe drinking water, served the critical need of rooting the planned technological solution. The spreadsheet on technology based classification of various commercially available technologies for schools were prepared, which has been adopted by Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for implementing its ‘Jalmani’ programme. 169 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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In order to invite global solutions providers, scientifically designed templates for soliciting Global Expression of Interest (EoI) and Request for Proposals (RFP) were evolved for soliciting holistic/ part technical solutions for meeting water needs. The template required solution providers to provide listing of site selection priorities, required logistics support, previous experience, demonstrate preparedness for developing, implementing and operating solutions and elaborate methodology for proving the technical and financial viabilities through revenue models. 105 enterprises including 13 from abroad and 194 voluntary organization were enrolled in this effort. In order to enable development of customized technological solution, meeting the standard national norms for water requirements in rural and urban situation were adopted as the bench-mark. The objective was to supply the required amount of water meeting specified quality for intended use. A detailed project report comprising information on current details of cluster, rainfall data, water quality, water requirement projections, water sources and possible augmentation and technical details of proposed solution with assessment on sustainability was prepared for each of the selected cluster. The specific information compiled for the selected cluster included:
i)
Information of latitude, longitude and location on political map (village/ district/ province etc.) ii) Information on population, socio-economic condition, major occupation, cultivated area, major crops grown, irrigated area, source of water for drinking and domestic use, irrigation system in operation for water supply. iii) Rainfall (annual & monthly), types of soils of the area, hydro-geological set up, ground water availability and fluctuation of ground water levels, topographic map of the area with existing features, cadastral map of the village. iv) Water quality from hand pumps, shallow well and deep tube wells, and seasonal variation. v) Assessment of the water requirement of about 10,000 populations at present and projected population for 2020 for drinking, domestic uses, livestock and irrigation. vi) Exploration of various additional sources of water including scope for rain water/ roof water harvesting, artificial recharge of aquifers, renovation of existing but out of use village tanks. vii) Outline of proposed solution with specific mention of components along with a schematic diagram describing the collection, storage, treatment and distribution of water. viii) Type of water treatment required for drinking and other domestic use as well as livestock use, choice of appropriate treatment process, quantum to be treated for different uses, and appropriate equipment with locally available replacement parts, which can be maintained by local personnel with minimum training. ix) Power supply requirement, source and number of hours of availability. 170 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
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x) Information on existing water distribution system for drinking and other uses, if any, and requirement of modifications to the system or development of suitable water distribution system, if one does not exist. xi) Assessing the number and locations of bore well, recharge and other water conservation structures such as check dams etc., as may be required and design of these and other civil structures, as required. xii) Plans and details (along with drawings) for the proposed renovation works of existing but out of use water bodies. xiii) Reasonable assessment of land required for various component of works to be executed and concurrence from local authorities for making the required land available. xiv) Estimate of civil construction costs based on Schedule of Rates (SoR) applicable to that district/ state updated based on approved cost indices for inflation. Cost of all bought out equipment/ machinery was to be based on actual cost. xv) Broad layout and structural drawings of proposed solutions. This detailed project report provided the basic information required for assessing the solution based on the transparent criteria developed earlier.
Selection, Pilot Trials, and Evaluation of Site Specific Solutions for the Best Revenue Models The research plan envisaged setting up pilot systems for developing convergent technology solutions for water challenge in each region covering a total population of approximately 10,000 to prove the concept at ground level and undertake research on sustainability. Accordingly, pilot trials commenced on selected technical solutions in the selected clusters by enterprises, non-governmental organizations, state S&T councils, enterprises, R&D/ academic institutions, local community etc. individually or as a consortium. Water management solutions relied upon cost-effective, sustainable and robustly engineered technology such as rain water harvesting to address water scarcity with community participation. A consortium based approach for customised design of solutions to address water challenges in specific social context was evolved and implemented. The data regarding efficacy and effectiveness of systems to conserve, harvest and treat water was collected and analysed as per template designed to include all relevant parameters. The analysis enabled evaluation of projects for technical feasibility, social acceptability, environmental sustainability and economic viability. The research plan of the mission envisaged rigorous performance evaluation of selected technical solutions in various clusters. Detailed technical monitoring and evaluation protocols in partnership with Water and Power Consultancy Organisation (WAPCOS) and Consultancy Development Centre (CDC) were worked out. Besides presenting glimpses of other initiatives, the case study of Buja-Buja has been given to elaborate approach, methodology and impact of technology solutions found under Mission: WAR for Water. 171 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.
• Buja Buja, Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh
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An innovative, holistic and sustainable technological solution in Buja Buja covering a population of 12170 to address low per capita water availability, (due to hydro geological formation of clay up to 100 m) and poor quality of surface water (due to multiple contaminants, hardness and salinity due to seawater intrusion) has been provided. (Table 1).
Table 1. Water Quality Analysis of Buja Buja, Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh Water Quality data Parameters
SN
Raw Water
Product water
Standard for Drinking water as per IS 10500
7.5
6.78
6.5 – 8.0
1
pH
2
Total Dissolved Solids mg/l
2000
150
